The Ancient Romans have left a legacy of its sprawling empire through ruins, architecture and history firmly rooted in Italian culture. This legacy has inspired artists and writers for generations and the archaeological site of Pompeii, located in southern Italy, has fascinated historians as a place frozen in time after the tragic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.
Here, Amy Chandler considers the history of tourism at Mount Vesuvius.
The eruption of Vesuvius in 1794 by Alessandro D'Anna.
This tragic natural events after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius buried both Pompeii and Herculaneum and was left undisturbed until 1748. In the immediate aftermath of the eruption, efforts were made by the new Emperor Titus to relocate those who survived to nearby cities such as Nola, Naples and Capua. (1) Despite initial attempts, human interference reduced with only looters attempting to dig through the newly formed igneous rock to retrieve valuables. Soon the site became overgrown and forgotten leaving Pompeii frozen in tragedy. In 1863, under Italy’s new leader Garibaldi, Giuseppe Fiorelli was appointed as director of the excavation to uncover Pompeii’s lost history. (1)
The story of Pompeii and those fateful days leading to the eruption fascinates visitors and draws 2.5 million tourists each year to the site, with 1 million visiting Mount Vesuvius. Visitors are eager to walk in the footsteps of history and understand the civilisation that was destroyed and connect with the past in a meaningful way. The reasons as to why many visit the historic site and climb the mountain with such a volatile reputation has changed over the centuries from a spiritual enlightening to an insatiable form of consumerism. Arguably, climbing Mount Vesuvius was seen as what modern society refers to as the bucket list. The attitude and needs of the tourist shifted from a spiritual enlightening to the desire for comfort and speed where travellers focused on the destination rather than the journey. The types of tourists shifted as new forms of interacting with the area and travel evolved. This article will explore how tourism has changed from the elite grand tour to Mount Vesuvius and Pompeii to a destination attracting tourists from all over the world.
The eighteenth century tourist
In the eighteenth century, the Grand Tour of Europe was common amongst the elite upper class of the male English aristocracy to broaden their knowledge and experience of the world through cultural enrichment in Europe and beyond. (2) Seen as a rite of passage, many would bring back souvenirs from their travels. (2) Travel was primarily common in the elite and most wealthy as it wasn’t financially or physically accessible, therefore the only way to experience these locations was through travel writers, and paintings from those privileged enough to travel across Europe. It wasn’t until the 1840s with the rise of the middle class and the boom of industrialisation and railways that this elite activity became more accessible to a wider group of people who could afford to travel for leisure. This soon broadened the type of tourist and diluted the exclusivity of the elite grand tour. Grand tourists visited the main cities in Europe and travelled by boat and horse drawn carriage in a lengthy and often challenging journey that could easily last a year or longer. There wasn’t any set route but would begin by crossing the English Channel by boat and entering France. From there the journey could deviate but would mainly consist of entering Italy either from the Alps and Lyon or Marseille to Livorno, Italy. Once in Italy, the tour would drift through Florence for the Renaissance art, Venice for partying and the annual carnival and detour to Rome to visit the ancient ruins. It wasn’t until the excavation of Pompeii and Herculaneum in 1738 and 1748 that tourists deviated to southern Italy into Naples to visit the ruins.
The journey to climbing up Mount Vesuvius in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century was either by purchasing a private carriage that provided a leisurely journey or, which was most common, a communal horse drawn carriage called a corricolo or calesso. (3) The journey became easier after the introduction of the 1839 railway to Portici that was one of Italy’s first railway lines that followed the Vesuvius coastline offering a picturesque journey for visitors. Before this, the journey was often an exciting and treacherous adventure where the visitor became involved with the locals. Most tourists arrived at the Piazza della Fontana, which was compiled of 12 buildings and a stable. (3) This was usually where many would haggle and bargain with local tour guides. Once visitors had acquired a guide, they begun the ascent up the mountain where the landscape suddenly transformed from rich volcanic soil to a “realm of death and the slain earth’s dust alone slips beneath your unassured feet” as described by Madame de Stael in her 1807 travel guide Corinne, ou l’Italie. (3) Travellers usually rode on donkeys until they reached what many referred to as a “half-way house to heaven”, “Casa Bianca” or most commonly the Hermitage of San Salvatore. (3) The Hermitage offered travellers rest and food before the next journey towards the summit and was built in the 1650s, 600 metres above sea level by fugitives of the plague and was close to the previous Hermitage that was destroyed by the 1631 eruption. Galignani’s Guide (1824) described the lodgings as a “neat plain white building of two stories” with a chapel. (3) The Hermitage offered more than just a rest for travellers, but was an opportunity for a change in tour guides. The Hermitage also offered a Visitor’s Book for travellers to sign with many recording details of their stay. While there was no fee for staying, those who ran the Hermitage expected a suitable reward in return for their hospitality.
From that moment on, tourists travelled on foot for about an hour, which was followed by a strenuous ascent to the volcano. As eruptions occurred, so did the increase in tourism, the Hermitage was particularly busy in autumn after 1822 which meant a need for more staff and tour guides. Many illustrations depicted flocks of wealthy tourists in inadequate attire climbing the mountain, which emphasises the mass interest in the area. Due to the nature of the hot and rough terrain a cobbler was stationed at the Hermitage to mend worn out and damaged shoes. The higher the climb the tougher it became as one traveller described the ascent as “climbing a sand hill” combined with the sulphurous fumes from the volcano. (3) At this point, the guides would wrap belts around their group and drag each other up the mountain. On some occasion, sedan chairs carried those who were unable to walk on the rough terrain.Much of the allure of visiting the volcano came from the thrill and unpredictability of nature. No two visits were the same, with the terrain altering after an eruption to occasional explosions to full eruptions depending on the time and environmental factors of the climb. The greater the danger meaning the greater the thrill that only created a mixture of fear, awe and apprehension at the strength of nature. Mount Vesuvius was a reminder that this volcano was responsible for wiping out a civilisation in one swoop leaving history frozen in time.
Modern intervention
The process of finding and bargaining with a guide was seen as a rite of passage and perceived as a fixed itinerary when visiting Naples by the 1820s. However, by 1862 the process was streamlined through a ticketing system and aided by Thomas Cook tours in 1864, which organised excursions across Europe and the UK. (3) Thomas Cook introduced Pompeii into the wider itinerary for European travel and created structured visits, transforming the whole experience entirely. (4) This streamlining process aided in structured and accessible exploration without the reliance on local knowledge from tour guides. The structured approach to visiting Naples and the volcano became compacted in visitor guidebooks that provided details, logistics and descriptions of the site that prepared visitors instead of blindly entering the area. In many ways, this approach allowed greater control, but took away that thrill of foreign travel that was once alluring to those undertaking the grand tour and the stories of unknown territory. However, with an influx of tourists and the instability of volcanic eruptions the typography changed through man-made interventions and eruptions cutting new paths to the summit. For example, throughout the nineteenth century, a road was built leading to the Hermitage and by 1844 an Observatory was built that increased accessibility and scientific interest, once again changing the way visitors interacted with the area. (3) The road allowed easy access for carriages and turned the path to Mount Vesuvius into a commodity that many could just ride up in a carriage and pay enough money to be taken to the summit. Some travellers referred to the lines of carriages all flocking the summit as ‘Derby Day’. Even the way that visitor experienced the climb changed from many embracing the dirt and ash and the physical toil that the climb had on their body to those who didn’t need to exert themselves at all.
As tourism flourished, the need for tighter regulations also increased. The local government began to regulate the guides and control their numbers and activities on the mountain. (3). The Ordinance of 1846 reduced the number of official guides to 16 with the requirement to speak at least one foreign language and be of “good character”. (3) These official guides were issued permits and given fixed prices to charge for tours to the summit, this eliminated the need for bargaining that so many travellers associated with early visits to Naples. The intervention of the local government undermined the select few who held a monopoly on activities in the area and controlled the routes to and from Mount Vesuvius previously. Visitors now had a variety of options and better communication while travelling. Despite this improvement a handful of tourists still preferred to continue to travel through the Resina area for the adventure rather than to choose the convenience of the railway. Ultimately, the need to haggle and bargain for a guide was unnecessary and the production of widely accessible guidebooks stating the dangers of guides who bargain eliminated this step. The intervention of travel agencies like Thomas Cook played a major part in the flourishing of tourism and the accessibility to a wider audience. This intervention sanitised the experience and today it is very common for travel agencies to employ English-speaking travel reps to work in hotels abroad and act as a point of contact and excursion organiser for British tourists. This checkpoint removes the need to integrate within the local culture and is distant from the experience of those who undertook the grand tour in the eighteenth century.
Growing strains
Furthermore, the greater the number of visitors the greater the strain on the surrounding infrastructure to accommodate the growing needs. It is only natural that as these attractions become popular, the need to modernise or transform the way that visitors interact with the area must adapt to the new needs of tourists. The development of photography and ability to produce souvenirs from the excursion created a heightened awareness that reached a wider audience. By 1880, the introduction of a funicular railway to Mount Vesuvius eased the journey and reliance on guides for the whole journey. Instead guides were only needed for the climb to the summit. This railway cut a 1 hour and 30 minute ascent to a 12-minute ride that could transport 300 passengers a day. (3) Despite improving the visitor experience, the funicular didn’t achieve much of a profit and cost too much to run. By 1887, Thomas Cook’s son John Mason Cook swooped in to save the funicular but refused to accept the guide’s request for a concession payment. (3) This created major tension and protests from the tour guides resulting in the burning of the station, cutting the track and throwing one of the funicular cars into Vesuvius’s crater. The guides interfered with repairs and damaged the line, prompting the closure for 6 months until an agreement was settled. Finally a settlement agreed that a portion of every ticket sold on the funicular was given to the guides in exchange for their services at the upper station to the top of the volcano (100 yards). (3) This agreement changed the structure of guides from independent to employees. Albeit, the funicular did close in 1955 after the completion of a road and was no longer used. Tourism rapidly changed because of the work of travel agents like Thomas Cook. They created an itinerary and holiday with strict structures that focused on stress-free experiences that avoided the issues that past travellers had to negotiate. Before long, a hotel, restaurant, railway and toll roads that issued levies on non-Cook customers surrounded the volcano. (3) These infrastructures provided stable income for the local community and the romantic idea of struggle and enlightenment through the treacherous climb was replaced by comfort, ease and convenience. Tourists were distanced from physical challenges of the environment and the immersion with the locals. The volatile volcano could be conquered with little effort, which is a far cry from the gruelling path made by many grand tourists of the eighteenth century.
Both the site of Pompeii and Herculaneum preserve history in a fixed point in time, but some historians argue that this moment may not reflect the extent of daily life as many did evacuate and take personal possessions. These sites still offer historians and visitors a unique opportunity that no other historical or archaeological site can do, even if much of the original structures were severely damaged during the eruption. The excavation of Pompeii opened up a human and emotive narrative that connected with visitors on a different level than just an event in the past. However, with the growing number of tourists visiting Naples today, there is increased concern for the safety of both the site of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Pompeii has a lasting legacy and it appears many tourists wish to do the same. Reports include tourists vandalising and purposefully damaging the frescos with one Dutch visitor writing their name in permanent marker in bold letters and some scratching their initials into the stone. (5) In the future, there must come a point where local governments and heritage bodies such as UNESCO need to evaluate the safety of the sites with the growing number of visitors. Arguably, some visitors potentially view the site as a tourist attraction or commodity for their personal consumption rather than a place of immense historical value and a memorial to those killed by the eruption. This point is something that is lost through the commercialisation and allowing open access to the public. Italy has also started to restrict the number of tourists entering Pompeii by only issuing 20,000 tickets per day and utilising timed slots in peak summer times to help ease the human pressures placed on the fragile site. (6) It’s not just Pompeii that is struggling under the number of visitors, popular locations like Venice, Portofino, Capri and Rome also experience immense strain during peak season. (6)
Conclusion
The awe and unpredictability of nature is one that has captivated visitors for centuries and still offers an unmatched experience. To visit Mount Vesuvius and walk around the site of Pompeii has only grown in its popularity due to the timeless preservation of history. Pompeii is a haunting reminder the natural world cannot be domesticated irrespective of technology that monitors and tries to predict the next natural disaster. The rise of tourism to the area and many other UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Europe have been made accessible through industrialisation, railway and other transport options that connected remote areas that were once only accessible by carriage. Large travel agents have replaced the control from the local monopoly that select families had over visitor routes and territory by structured excursions. The Grand Tourists of the eighteenth and nineteenth century embellished a daring and treacherous experience through writing, artwork and word of mouth, which creates this fear of missing out. Social media is just a more advanced way to distribute these stories about Pompeii and other cities that replaces the old-fashioned grand tourists. However, like with all major cities that often become shrouded in a romanticised version or one that is often embellished, the reality of visiting some of these locations can often be underwhelming. This is especially evident when heritage sites become flooded with tourism that poses a threat to the preservation of heritage and culture. What is most evident is that while museums, writers and artist can attempt to capture the feeling and atmosphere of cities and heritage sites, they cannot always replicate that feeling of being there in person.
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References
(1) J. Renshaw, In search of the Romans (London, Bloomsbury Academic, 2012),pp. 267, 273.
(2) Royal Museums Greenwich, ‘What was the Grand Tour?’, 2025, RMG < https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/what-was-grand-tour >[accessed 20 January 2025].
(3) J. Brewer, Volcanic: Vesuvius in the age of revolutions (USA, Yale University Press, 2023), pp. 12, 14,15,21-23, 152 -154.
(4) Pompeii Archaeological Park, ‘How Tourism in Pompeii Boomed Through Photography and Middle Class Enthusiasm’, 2025, Pompeii Archaeological Park <
https://pompeiiarchaeologicalpark.com/tourism-in-pompeii/ > [accessed 22 January 2025].
(5) Reuters, ‘Dutch tourist accused of graffitiing Ancient Roman villa in Herculaneum’, 2024, CNN Travel < https://edition.cnn.com/2024/06/05/travel/dutch-tourist-defacing-roman-scli-intl/index.html >[accessed 30 January 2025].
(6) G. Dean, ‘Pompeii to cap daily tourist numbers at 20,000’, 2024, BBC News <
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cjdl1njj1peo >[accessed 22 January 2025].
