A Defense of Duels

Duels in the Middle Ages occurred on many occasions. While authorities did not usually like them, they took place for a number of reasons. Here. Jeb Smith offers an explanation on why they occurred – and what they avoided.

A 1902 depiction of Alexander Hamilton fighting his deadly duel with Vice President Aaron Burr in July 1804.

Medieval duels derived from trial by combat. When evidence and witnesses could not decide a clear verdict in court, and both sides maintained their positions, they could defend their integrity and honor in combat. Often duels were considered an accurate method to determine truth; after all, David received help from God during his duel with Goliath, the Almighty was sure to intervene, and truth would prevail.[1]

Despite the Church outlawing them, duels remained popular and kept a level of respect between individuals. They made education in proper manners and politeness as vital as we believe teaching math or language is today. A society whose citizens insult each other is attacking God; it degrades man as an image bearer of the divine. Defending "honor" is defending God. People then took insults, swears, and degrading comments so seriously the guilty party could be fined for what we deem a common occurrence.[2]

While honor might have led to the death of some in duels, the current lack of honor and human value leads to our modern plague of bullying, depression and suicide.

Avoiding war?

Further, duels could prevent larger-scale wars from occurring. Lords could settle disputes in a duel and avoid more significant conflicts. For example, in 2002, Iraq offered their president and vice president to duel with their American counterparts to avoid the cost and bloodshed we know as the Iraq war.[3] Had a duel decided matters, we would have avoided thousands of deaths on both sides (including many innocent non-combatant lives) and the tremendous cost involved.

Part of our modern objection to dueling is it is very unselfish. It declares honor, integrity, societal standards, a good name, and justice are more vital than satisfying selfish desires.

Duels prevented wars, held people accountable, and did not let "barbarity" loose on society.[4] In contrast, today, "men" are supposed to have "tough skins" and accept insults and moral decay. The potential of duels cut down on insults, especially towards women. They reduced assassinations by providing an alternative to murder and allowing a cool-down period. Depending on the time and area, very few actually died in duels, especially when the weapon of choice was a sword. An injury or even showing up for the duel proved your honor, and the would-be adversaries could talk out their differences, retaining their integrity.

Those who believe the Middle Ages were violent due to duels, should know they were even more popular during the Renaissance and reached their height in the 18th century. As the medieval feudal lords morphed into aristocratic gentlemen and standing armies replaced them on the battlefield, they needed an "outlet." Duels provided the opportunity to show their courage. In addition, democracy extends politics through all members of society. Hence, duels became common among politicians, news editors, columnists, and anyone with a political opinion – and thus they became more frequent.

A more destructive evil?

While duels are undesirable, one could argue they avoid a more destructive evil. Barbara Holland wrote, "Currently, over 10,000 people in America die every year by firearms…most of the deaths are spur of the moment, and this is considered progress."[5] Many of these deaths, some would argue, could have been prevented by reinstating duels. Many murders result from various decays in our society and how we treat, speak, and act toward each other. In retaliation and anger, execution-style murders are committed in the dark in far greater numbers, where the victim does not have a fair chance. In other words, these crimes lack the equality of duels.

Further, while our murders have significantly risen, we still defend what we hold dear in society. But rather than the good name or reputation of a lady, family, and personal honor, it is now the nation-state. Just as modern murders have risen, so has the number of people who willingly defend their government and nation out of patriotic duty. They volunteer if the country's honor is contested or insulted like individuals used to for themselves. We have elevated the state, degraded the individual, and regard one kind of duel between gigantic governments run by politicians as acceptable and the other far less devastating duel between individuals as barbaric.

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[1] (Holland 2003, 9)

[2] (Singman 2013, 118-119)(Tierney and Painter 1983, 100)(Seebohm 1911, 376)

[3] (Holland 2003, 290)

[4] (Holland 2003, 24)

[5] (Holland 2003, 285)

The Peninsula Campaign and The Seven Days Battles: Part 1

The American Civil War had a number of critical junctures in 1862. Here, Lloyd W. Klein considers the 1862 Peninsula Campaign and The Seven Days Battles. In part 1 of a 2-part series, he looks at the Peninsula Campaign, including the Battle of Fair Oaks/ Seven Pines.

General Meagher at the Battle of Fair Oaks, Virginia. June 1, 1862.

‘If General McClellan is not going to use the army, I would like to borrow it for a time.’

Abraham Lincoln

As 1861 transitioned into 1862 without any notable military engagements in the Eastern Theater, President Lincoln's patience began to diminish in response to General McClellan's delays. In March 1862, hesitant to engage in a direct confrontation due to concerns about being outnumbered, General McClellan opted for a strategic flanking maneuver via water. His plan involved landing troops on the Yorktown Peninsula, situated between the James and York Rivers, while utilizing the Union Navy to safeguard his supply lines. From this position, he intended to launch an offensive against Richmond. Consequently, 70,000 Federal troops embarked on vessels bound for Fort Monroe, a Union stronghold at the Virginia Peninsula's tip, while an additional 35,000 troops under Irvin McDowell repositioned to Fredericksburg, located 50 miles north of Richmond. Furthermore, approximately 25,000 soldiers were available in the Shenandoah Valley under the command of Nathaniel P. Banks.

In the spring of 1862, General McClellan initiated an advance of Union forces westward from Fort Monroe. The Confederates, benefiting from their interior lines between General Johnston's army near Manassas and the Peninsula, effectively maneuvered their forces to bolster the troops stationed on the Peninsula. President Lincoln harbored doubts regarding this strategy, fully aware that Johnston would likely respond by mobilizing his army to protect Richmond, a movement that would occur more swiftly than McClellan's own. Nevertheless, recognizing that McClellan was finally taking action, Lincoln reluctantly acquiesced to the plan.

Yorktown & Williamsburg

By early April, McClellan was in position. At the campaign's onset, he faced approximately 20,000 Confederate troops near Yorktown, Virginia, the site of Cornwallis's surrender to Washington. The town is located on the York River. With a significant advantage of at least three to one, McClellan was poised for success, especially with an additional 30,000 Federal reinforcements expected to arrive shortly. However, he mistakenly convinced himself that he was up against 200,000 Confederates, leading to inaction on his part.

The Confederate field commander, Major General John Bankhead Magruder, a graduate of West Point, was acutely aware of his disadvantage. In a strategic move, he opted to deceive McClellan by frequently repositioning his troops and dispersing his artillery into single units that fired intermittently. This tactic created the illusion of a much larger force, successfully convincing McClellan to initiate a siege of Yorktown. This decision ultimately provided General Johnston with the necessary time to reinforce his beleaguered troops, effectively thwarting what could have been a decisive Union victory.

McClellan meanwhile awaited the reinforcements he deemed essential to beat an enemy he estimated to outnumber him by three times. Even a basic acquaintance with the 1860 Census would have made clear that was impossible. As McClellan awaited the reinforcements he believed were crucial to confront an enemy he grossly overestimated, he overlooked the opportunity. In reality, Magruder commanded only 11,000 men. Although escaped black slaves who reached Union lines provided accurate information regarding Confederate troop numbers, their accounts were dismissed and not taken seriously by McClellan.

In choosing to lay siege to Yorktown, McClellan miscalculated the situation, believing that Johnston's entire army was positioned against him. This decision resulted in a significant loss of momentum and tactical advantage for the Union forces. Between April 18 and May 2, the Union Army established fourteen distinct positions. McClellan offered various justifications for his reluctance to engage in battle, citing the inexperience of his troops, inadequate supplies, and the necessity of securing Washington from potential surprise attacks. Finally, Magruder abandoned Yorktown after 2 weeks of delaying McClellan.

Following the Confederate withdrawal from Yorktown, the Union division under Brigadier General Joseph Hooker encountered the Confederate rearguard in the vicinity of Williamsburg. Williamsburg is positioned on elevated terrain between the York and James Rivers. Hooker launched an assault on an earthen fortification situated along the Williamsburg Road; however, his forces were repelled. Confederate counterattacks, orchestrated by Major General James Longstreet, posed a significant threat to the Union's left flank. Fortunately, a Union division arrived in time to reinforce the position, marking the Battle of Williamsburg as the first major engagement of the Peninsula Campaign.

Brigadier General Philip Kearny's 3rd Division of III Corps played a crucial role in stabilizing the Federal position, with Kearny famously leading his men onto the battlefield with his sword drawn and reins clenched in his teeth, a technique he had mastered during his training with the French cavalry. Kearny was a seasoned veteran, having distinguished himself in the Mexican War and served in Napoleon III’s Imperial Guard at Solferino, despite having lost his left arm in combat.

In a strategic maneuver, a Union brigade advanced to threaten the Confederate left flank by occupying two abandoned redoubts. Despite receiving multiple orders to withdraw, the brigade's commander resolutely held his ground against enemy attacks and subsequently led a bayonet charge in a counteroffensive. This courageous brigade was led by Brigadier General Winfield Scott Hancock, who earned a reputation for his steadfastness and refusal to retreat. General McClellan praised Hancock's performance as “superb,” a commendation that led to his enduring nickname, “Hancock the Superb.” His leadership and bravery during the battle solidified his status as a remarkable figure in the Union Army.

The battle saw approximately 41,000 Union troops face off against 32,000 Confederates, resulting in an inconclusive outcome that allowed the Confederates to continue their retreat.

Movement up the Virginia Peninsula: McClellan and the Slows

‘If he had a million men, he would swear that the enemy has two millions, and then he would sit down in the mud and yell for three.’

Secretary of War Edwin Stanton

With Richmond as his primary objective, McClellan recognized that a direct land route would necessitate traversing swamps and wetlands during the late spring season. Consequently, he opted to navigate along the Pamunkey River, which flows northward and runs approximately parallel to the Chickahominy River, until he reached the point where he needed to cross it to approach Richmond.

The pace of McClellan's advance was notably sluggish. A significant factor contributing to this delay was his anticipation of support from McDowell’s Corps, which was advancing southward from Fredericksburg to assist in the offensive. However, McDowell was ultimately redirected to the Shenandoah Valley, creating what appeared to be a favorable opportunity for McClellan to initiate his own movements.

McClellan's reliance on inaccurate intelligence reports, provided by his associate Allan Pinkerton, who was the founder of a prominent private detective agency, led him to consistently overestimate the size of the Confederate forces across the Potomac River. He believed that the enemy was now twice as numerous as his own troops. However, the reality was quite the opposite; the Union army outnumbered the Confederate forces by a ratio of at least two to one and perhaps three to one.

In hindsight, it is evident that these delays yielded no strategic advantages.  Particularly regarding the situation at Yorktown, the postponement allowed Johnston to reposition his army effectively. Consequently, McClellan lost the chance to secure an unobstructed route to Richmond and failed to outmaneuver Johnston, resulting in the forfeiture of any potential benefits that could have arisen.

McClellan's tendency to exaggerate the size of enemy forces was so consistent that it suggests a deliberate, possibly psychological, motivation behind his actions. This pattern of inflating enemy troop numbers was a defining characteristic of McClellan's military career. For instance, he claimed to have defeated double the actual number of troops at Rich Mountain, thereby enhancing the perception of his victory. Furthermore, he tripled the count of opposing forces across the Potomac, which contributed to a heightened sense of urgency and ultimately led to his promotion to commander-in-chief. The culmination of this behavior was evident during the Peninsula Campaign, where he significantly overstated enemy numbers, expressed concerns about the resources needed for victory, and when unable to secure those resources, proceeded with operations while attributing any failures to his superiors. This strategy allowed him to portray himself as a victor against overwhelming odds or to deflect blame in the event of defeat.

Despite being provided with accurate assessments of troop strengths, McClellan chose to disregard critical intelligence. He was given correct numerical information by escaped slaves. General John Wool at Fortress Monroe thought he was too slow and gave him more precise numbers Thaddeus Lowe and the Balloon Corps, stationed near Gaines’ Farm, consistently reported the movements of Confederate forces near Fair Oaks, delivering precise information even up to June 1. The reasons behind McClellan's dismissal of these reports remain speculative, but they align with the psychological tendencies previously discussed, suggesting a disconnect between the available intelligence and his strategic decisions.

In a controversial move, Lincoln opted to redirect McDowell's forces from a southern advance to the Valley to support Fremont, despite objections from both McClellan and McDowell. This decision, while aimed at addressing the vulnerability of Washington and providing necessary assistance to Fremont, may have had adverse consequences. Lincoln's judgment was sound in recognizing the threat posed by Jackson's movements, which ultimately led to Jackson retreating further into the Valley to join forces with Lee. However, had McDowell continued his advance, he would have positioned himself advantageously alongside Porter’s V Corps along the Chickahominy River, potentially countering Lee's strategic plans effectively.

The Peninsula Campaign: March to May 1862. Source: Hlj, available here.

Battle of Fair Oaks / Seven Pines (May 31 and June 1, 1862)

General Joseph E. Johnston, known for his cautious approach, conducted a methodical retreat through the Peninsula, engaging in inconclusive skirmishes along the way.  Recognizing his numerical disadvantage, the Confederate army executed a retreat to the northwest, successfully crossing the Chickahominy River, which served as the sole natural barrier separating the Peninsula from Richmond. A Union naval expedition aimed at advancing up the James River toward Richmond had been halted at Drewry’s Bluff, a situation that Johnston adeptly exploited by positioning his right flank at that location. Additionally, he stationed A.P. Hill at the extreme left flank along a bend in the Chickahominy, compelling McClellan to cross the river to reach Richmond. While a segment of the Union army managed to cross, other units remained stationed to the east of the river.

Until this point, President Davis had perceived Johnston's caution as a liability, urging him to take the offensive against McClellan. However, Johnston, fully aware of his inferior numbers, was strategically waiting for an opportune moment to strike an isolated portion of McClellan’s army. At this juncture, two Union corps had successfully crossed the Chickahominy River and were positioned alarmingly close to Richmond, just four miles away, where they could hear the ringing of church bells.

As the Union forces positioned themselves on either side of the seemingly tranquil river, a deluge of rain ensued, resulting in severe flooding that rendered the river and surrounding swamps nearly impassable. This natural disaster effectively divided the Union army; despite the proximity of the two factions, their only means of communication was a bridge located several miles away. Seizing the opportunity presented by the fragmentation of McClellan's forces, Johnston planned to strike the contingent of the Union army stranded south of the river. In a calculated move, he could potentially deploy 22 of his 29 brigades, totaling approximately 51,000 troops, against the III and IV Corps, which together comprised 33,000 soldiers.

During the Battle of Seven Pines, also known as Fair Oaks, which took place from May 31 to June 1, 1862, General Johnston launched an assault against the vulnerable corps stationed there. The offensive occurred at two key locations: the railroad station at Fair Oaks and the crossroads of Seven Pines, situated approximately one mile apart. Although the attacks lacked coordination, they proved to be effective, with General D.H. Hill spearheading the offensive and directing all available reinforcements to the front lines.

The resultant attack was uncoordinated. Johnston launched an offensive against two Union corps that were positioned separately across the Chickahominy River, effectively cut off from the main body of the Union army. His strategy was intricate, yet he failed to provide clear instructions to his commanders regarding the intended sequence of events. The plan involved a demonstration by his left flank while Longstreet was to approach from three different directions, one of which included DH Hill’s division tasked with assaulting a critical crossroads near a cluster of seven large pines, known as Seven Pines.

However, Longstreet deviated from the intended route, mistakenly taking the Williamsburg Road instead of the Nine Mile Road. While some of his troops found themselves in the correct location, they were uncertain about the timing of their assault. Ultimately, only DH Hill’s division, comprising approximately 10,000 soldiers, engaged Silas Casey’s brigade of merely 6,000, resulting in a significant breakthrough. Despite Johnston being a mere 2.5 miles from the front lines, he was unable to hear the sounds of battle due to an acoustic shadow, which hindered his ability to send reinforcements in a timely manner.

Amid this pivotal confrontation, General Johnston was wounded while actively leading his troops. A veteran present at the scene recounted the chaos, stating, "… every deadly projectile which could take a human life and maim and disfigure were showered upon us." As bullets and artillery shells flew around him, a bullet struck Johnston in his right shoulder, followed by a shell explosion that sent a fragment into his chest, causing him to fall unconscious from his horse. He suffered a broken shoulder and two fractured ribs, and his aides promptly transported him to safety, where he eventually regained consciousness.

Upon regaining consciousness, Johnston immediately requested the retrieval of his sword and pistols, which had fallen during his fall. He expressed the sentimental value of the sword, stating, “The sword was the one worn by my father in the Revolutionary War, and I would not lose it for ten thousand dollars.” Drury Armistead of the 3rd Virginia Cavalry bravely ventured back to recover the items. In the meantime, Major General Gustavus Smith assumed command, but the renewed attack lacked the necessary vigor. The following day, General Lee took over leadership, with McClellan expressing a preference for Lee over Johnston.  This misapprehension was due to Lee's early struggles at Cheat Mountain, which led McClellan to question Lee's decisiveness under pressure.

The outcome of the battle was indecisive. The Union forces managed to hold their ground, allowing McClellan to continue his advance toward Richmond. The casualties were substantial, with Union losses totaling 5,031 (including 790 killed, 3,594 wounded, and 647 captured or missing) and Confederate losses amounting to 6,134 (with 980 killed, 4,749 wounded, and 405 captured or missing). This engagement was the second largest and bloodiest battle of the war thus far, following the Battle of Shiloh just eight weeks prior.

Brig Gen OO Howard lost his right arm at Fair Oaks. General Philip Kearny famously quipped that they’d now be able to shop for gloves together, as General Kearny had lost his left arm. Brig Gen Robert Rodes was wounded, and Col John B Gordon took command. Rodes would return to lead his brigade at Gaines’ Mill.

Seven Pines could have been a decisive Confederate victory, but several things went wrong.

Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston had an opportunity to achieve a decisive victory, but a combination of poor planning, miscommunication, and logistical challenges prevented him from doing so. While Johnston’s plan had the potential for success, its execution fell short, and the battle ended inconclusively. The Union advance was stopped but Seven Pines was a missed Confederate opportunity.

Why Johnston Could Have Won Decisively. The Chickahominy River divided the Union Army, with two corps (approximately 33,000 men) on the south side near Seven Pines and the rest of McClellan’s army on the north side. Johnston’s plan aimed to overwhelm the isolated Union corps south of the river before McClellan could reinforce them. This was a sound strategy that could have inflicted a crippling blow on the Union army. Johnston had massed about 51,000 Confederate troops against the Union forces south of the Chickahominy. This gave him a significant numerical advantage in the immediate area, which he hoped to exploit. Johnston planned to strike early on May 31, taking advantage of heavy rains that had swollen the Chickahominy River and delayed Union reinforcements from crossing.

Why Johnston Failed to Achieve a Decisive Victory. Johnston's strategy for the attack required meticulous timing and effective coordination among various Confederate divisions. Unfortunately, the execution of this plan was hampered by ambiguous orders and failures in communication, which resulted in considerable delays and confusion on the battlefield. Additionally, prominent Confederate generals, including James Longstreet and D.H. Hill, misinterpreted their directives, leading to fragmented and disorganized assaults instead of a unified offensive. Longstreet's absence from the battle maps exemplifies this miscommunication, as he mistakenly directed his troops down an incorrect route, inadvertently encountering Benjamin Huger's forces and contributing to the overall chaos. If General Huger had led his division into action at the appointed time and supported Smith Longstreet and Hill, Keyes' Union Corps would have been destroyed. Consequently, the planned morning attack was postponed until the afternoon of May 31, affording Union forces additional time to fortify their defenses.

Johnston should have made better use of Magruder's division. If the Chickahominy had remained high enough to stop Union reinforcements, a different outcome would be expected. If there had been no delay of Longstreet's troops at Gilles Creek, or on the Williamsburg road, or if, at least, if Johnston had been informed when Longstreet did go into action, perhaps the victory could have been more complete. Good staff work and prompt reports would have offset the acoustic shadow and enabled the timely advance of the Confederate left.

The Union troops, under the command of Generals Erasmus Keyes and Darius Couch, demonstrated considerable resilience despite being outnumbered. Their steadfastness allowed them to hold their positions long enough for reinforcements to arrive from the northern side of the Chickahominy River. The timely intervention of Union General Sumner with additional troops played a crucial role in stabilizing the situation. Although the Confederates succeeded in pushing back Union forces in certain sectors, they failed to take advantage of openings in the Union lines, resulting in a missed opportunity for a decisive breakthrough. Instead, the conflict devolved into a protracted and bloody stalemate, undermining the initial Confederate objectives.

A decisive Confederate victory could have severely disrupted McClellan's Peninsula Campaign. Had McClellan been compelled to retreat, the subsequent Seven Days Battles might have been averted, further hindering Union advances toward Richmond. However, the inconclusive nature of the battle ultimately paved the way for General Lee's ascension to command and the ensuing series of confrontations known as the Seven Days Battles, which would shape the course of the conflict.

McClellan continued to cross the river, bringing all of his troops except V Corps and he continued to plan on a siege. His emotional reaction, told in a letter to his wife, was "I am tired of the sickening sight of the battlefield, with its mangled corpses & poor suffering wounded! Victory has no charms for me when purchased at such cost."

After the battle, mosquitos surrounded the area from the rains and floods. Soldiers on both sides became severely ill with an infection whose origin has never been entirely explained. Chickahominy Fever had symptoms of both typhoid fever and malaria, so it is officially classified as a typhomalarial fever, but has at times also been called bilious fever.  It was most likely a form of malaria with GI predilection, or both malaria and typhoid fever, hence the name. It may also have included cases of dengue fever and perhaps shigellosis.

Lee Takes Command

Jefferson Davis encountered numerous challenges during his presidency, often making questionable decisions. However, on the evening of May 31, 1862, as he accompanied General Lee from the battlefield to Richmond and entrusted him with command of the army, Davis undoubtedly made the most astute choice of his presidency.

On June 1, 1862, General Lee assumed command amidst the ongoing battle at Seven Pines. Lee prioritized the long-term strategy over immediate victory, focusing on conserving his remaining forces and devising a new plan. He utilized the battle as an opportunity to reorganize his command structure, removing two brigadiers and rearranging the brigades to enhance their effectiveness.

This period marked the Union Army's closest approach to potentially concluding the war for the next two years. Despite the demoralization of Johnston's troops and the inadequately fortified defenses of Richmond, the well-equipped Union forces under Major General George B. McClellan, who outnumbered Lee's army, failed to mount a serious assault on the Confederate capital. With McClellan positioned between the defenses of Richmond and the Chickahominy River, Lee and Davis engaged in discussions to determine the most effective course of action, with Lee outlining three strategic options: abandon Richmond, prepare for a siege, or launch an attack. His recommendations aligned perfectly with President Davis's expectations.

In the three weeks after taking command, Lee undertook a comprehensive reorganization of his forces and reinforced the defenses of Richmond. He recognized that a purely defensive strategy would be inadequate against the formidable Federal army. Rather than passively waiting for an inevitable attack that he might not withstand, Lee also deemed it unwise to precipitate a siege, a decision that would later contrast sharply with his actions two years hence. Instead, he devised an audacious and strategic plan to take the initiative.

On June 23, Lee convened a meeting with his generals to unveil his intentions for an offensive operation. He articulated his strategy in General Order No. 75, which was disseminated to his commanders the following day. Lee's approach to dislodge the largest army ever assembled in the New World was grounded in a keen assessment of the Federal forces and their vulnerabilities. He posited that the sheer size of the Federal army could be turned into a disadvantage.

The primary goal of Lee's plan was to separate McClellan's main army, which was concentrated south of the Chickahominy River, from its supply lines. McClellan's forces required over 600 tons of provisions daily, presenting a significant logistical challenge akin to sustaining a small city. To execute his strategy, Lee stationed a minimal force to defend Richmond's eastern perimeter while moving the majority of his troops northward across the Chickahominy. His objective was to overwhelm the Union forces near Mechanicsville, whose responsibility was to safeguard the critical Federal supply base. By disrupting their resupply efforts, Lee aimed either to secure a decisive victory over McClellan or compel him to retreat from Richmond.

Lee ordered three separate columns to commence their march on the same morning. Each column was to utilize its own designated route, and engagement in combat would only occur if the commander identified a strategic advantage. This advantage was inherently linked to the performance of the other columns; however, the failure of one column did not obligate the others to engage. General Magruder was tasked with leading 25,000 troops stationed to the east of Richmond, who would serve as defenders should the offensive strategy falter. Major Generals James Longstreet, A.P. Hill, and D. H. Hill were to concentrate their divisions on the left flank of the Confederate line, preparing to assault the right side of the Union forces. The offensive at Mechanicsville aimed to push the enemy southward. Meanwhile, General Jackson's Army was to conduct a covert march to join Lee's forces and target the right rear flank. Brigadier General W. N. Pendleton was given the directive to deploy the reserve artillery and to thwart any attempts to advance on Richmond.

Lee's efforts extended beyond mere planning; he utilized the time to assess the viability of his strategy. He instructed JEB Stuart to conduct a reconnaissance mission to evaluate the vulnerability of the Union army's right flank. On the morning of June 12, Stuart embarked with 1,200 cavalrymen and confirmed the flank's susceptibility. After a comprehensive 150-mile journey around the Union forces, he returned on June 15 with 165 captured Union soldiers, along with 260 horses and mules, in addition to various quartermaster and ordnance supplies. The Union cavalry, which was more decentralized and commanded by Stuart's father-in-law, Col. Cooke, posed little serious resistance, resulting in only one casualty among Stuart's men. This successful maneuver not only bolstered morale but also elevated Stuart's status to that of a celebrated figure within the Confederacy, comparable to Stonewall Jackson, as he was welcomed in Richmond with flower petals strewn in his path.

Concurrently, McClellan grew increasingly apprehensive about the fragility of his supply line. The intelligence gathered from Stuart's raid proved invaluable to Lee. Although the threat to the Union supply line was not as immediate, the reconnaissance revealed that the right flank was indeed vulnerable. Consequently, Stuart's findings guided Lee to recognize that the most strategically advantageous option was also the most tactically feasible, allowing him to capitalize on the Union's weaknesses effectively.

McClellan's Army of the Potomac remained inactive in their positions on the eastern fringes of Richmond. The three weeks that ensued after Seven Pines were largely uneventful. It is perplexing to understand why McClellan chose to remain idle for such an extended period, especially considering the recent change in Confederate leadership.

The 22 days that elapsed between Lee assuming command and formulating his strategy proved disastrous, primarily due to McClellan's inaction during this critical timeframe. He had various courses of action available to him, yet he hesitated in his campaign to capture Richmond during the latter half of June. His misjudgment regarding the strength of Confederate forces in the city deterred him from launching an assault. Instead, he sought additional troops, missing a significant opportunity between June 18 and June 25, when the Confederate defenses around Richmond were relatively vulnerable. McClellan's focus on establishing a new supply route from Harrison's Landing to the James River, intended to bolster his base on the Pamunkey River, ultimately allowed Lee the necessary time to implement his strategy effectively.

McClellan’s Psyche

General George B. McClellan was a charismatic yet arrogant individual, characterized by his diminutive stature and dapper appearance at the age of 34. Before he was appointed the commanding general of the Army of the Potomac, he had achieved victories in two minor skirmishes against Confederate forces in West Virginia. His self-assuredness in his capabilities was evident as he sought to emulate Napoleon, often posing for photographs with his hand tucked into his jacket and surrounding himself with French officers on his staff.

McClellan's Peninsula Campaign was characterized by an overabundance of caution. Despite possessing a numerical superiority, he exhibited a slow pace and hesitated to capitalize on his advantages, which allowed Confederate generals Johnston and Lee to strengthen their forces and successfully counter McClellan's efforts. His persistent indecision and reluctance to engage the enemy enabled the Confederates to summon reinforcements. This hesitance in command proved detrimental, as it enabled the Confederate forces to regroup and repel the advances of the Union army.

The primary shortcoming of McClellan as a military leader was his procrastination. His habitual delays in launching attacks were harmful, as they provided the Confederates with opportunities to regroup and fortify their positions. During the Seven Days Battles, General McClellan's cautious approach resulted in the withdrawal of his troops in response to General Lee's assaults, despite the Union's numerical advantage. This decision ultimately enabled Lee to mount a successful defense of Richmond, thereby avoiding a significant defeat that could have altered the course of the conflict.

McClellan's persistent belief that Lee commanded a much larger force than he did contributed to his overly cautious strategies. His inclination to prioritize the preservation of his army over seizing critical opportunities for decisive engagement allowed Lee to control the tempo and direction of the campaign. Furthermore, McClellan's absence from the battlefield during pivotal confrontations hindered effective communication with his subordinates, which in turn diminished the Union Army's capacity to capitalize on its strengths. While General Johnston sustained severe injuries in battle, McClellan remained detached from the frontline.

McClellan's propensity to postpone attacks suggests a tendency to over-plan rather than act decisively. These delays proved neither advantageous nor justifiable in the context of the campaign. His psychological disposition seemingly impeded his ability to take the initiative, revealing the inherent limitations of the Peninsula Campaign strategy. The operation required maneuvering a substantial army through challenging terrain, including swamps and rivers, and adverse weather conditions further hampered the Union's progress. McClellan's focus on securing supply lines and constructing necessary infrastructure, such as bridges, took precedence over swift movement, leading to significant logistical challenges for the Union forces on the Virginia Peninsula. The fact that he was now positioned to the east of Richmond meant that Washington, DC, to the north, was somewhat uncovered. McClellan faced political pressures and disagreements with President Abraham Lincoln and Secretary of War Edwin Stanton over this issue. Lincoln withheld some reinforcements, particularly the troops under General Irvin McDowell, to protect Washington, D.C. McClellan argued that this decision weakened his ability to launch a decisive offensive.

McClellan’s offensive strategy centered on a methodical siege of Richmond rather than a quick assault. He dedicated significant time to strategically placing his troops and mobilizing heavy artillery, aiming for a gradual and calculated campaign to seize the Confederate capital. In response, the Confederates, led by General Joseph E. Johnston, established formidable defensive structures surrounding Richmond. McClellan exercised caution regarding assaults on fortified positions, prioritizing the thorough preparation of his forces for what he anticipated would be a challenging confrontation.

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Vlad the Impaler: Tyrant, Defender, or Monster?

Vlad III: The Impaler Prince of Wallachia – Tyrant, Defender, or Monster?

Vlad III, more infamously known as Vlad the Impaler or Vlad Țepeș, was one of the most feared rulers in Eastern Europe during the 15th century. Born between 1428/1431 in Transylvania into the noble House of Drăculești, a branch of the Basarab dynasty, Vlad's life and rule became the stuff of both nationalist legend and macabre folklore. His reputation for extreme cruelty, his iron-fisted rule, and his penchant for impalement left an indelible mark on European history, so much so that his persona helped inspire Bram Stoker's iconic character, Count Dracula.

Vlad the Impaler from the "Gallery of Ancestors", House of Esterházy, Forchtenstein Castle. Available here.

A Prince in the shadows of power and betrayal

Vlad was the second son of Vlad II Dracul, a member of the chivalric Order of the Dragon, a secret society sworn to defend Christendom against the Ottoman Turks. Vlad III spent part of his youth as a hostage in the Ottoman Empire alongside his brother Radu. These formative years exposed him to the realpolitik of empires and possibly planted the seeds of his deep-seated hatred of the Ottomans. When he eventually ascended the throne of Wallachia, a region now in modern-day Romania, Vlad inherited a deeply unstable principality plagued by noble infighting, foreign interference, and relentless Ottoman pressure.

The iron will of a ruthless leader

Vlad the Impaler was a fierce defender of Wallachian independence, relentlessly resisting Ottoman domination throughout his reign. His most celebrated military campaign occurred in 1462 when he launched a daring night attack on the invading Ottoman forces led by Sultan Mehmed II. Though ultimately unable to stop the full force of the invasion, Vlad's guerrilla tactics and mastery of psychological warfare, most notoriously exemplified by the infamous "forest of the impaled", left a profound impression on even the most battle-hardened Ottoman soldiers.

In a region plagued by feudal corruption and rampant crime, Vlad enforced a brutal legal code that brought a degree of order and centralized control to Wallachia. He demanded absolute loyalty and justice, punishing crimes such as theft and dishonesty with death, often by impalement. While undeniably draconian, his harsh policies reportedly transformed Wallachia into one of the safest places in Eastern Europe for law-abiding travelers.

Vlad also waged a ruthless campaign to diminish the power of the boyars, the regional nobility he viewed as treacherous and self-serving. His approach to administrative reform was unapologetically violent, frequently involving mass executions and purges of the elite. One notorious tale recounts how, in 1457, he invited hundreds of boyars to a banquet, only to have them all impaled or sentenced to forced labor rebuilding his mountain stronghold at Poenari. Through fear and bloodshed, Vlad established a strong, if brutal, centralized authority.

The ruthlessness that was borderline madness

One of the most glaring weaknesses of Vlad the Impaler was his ruthless nature, which often bordered on madness. His penchant for cruelty did not distinguish between foreign invaders and his people, leading to the alienation of allies. While some neighboring rulers admired his fierce resistance against the Ottomans, many were deeply wary of his unpredictable and brutal methods. This mistrust extended to powerful figures such as the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus, who, despite being a former supporter, ultimately imprisoned Vlad for 12 years. This action was driven not only by political considerations but also by Vlad's fearsome reputation and his unreliability as a diplomatic partner.

Vlad's excessive paranoia manifested in a disturbing readiness to employ violence against his subjects. Rather than addressing dissent or poverty through reform or governance, he viewed these conditions as direct threats that needed to be eradicated. His brutal policies and campaigns of fear against his people created a climate of terror, undermining any sense of unity or national strength.

Despite moments of military brilliance and his undeniable ability to instill fear, Vlad failed to secure a lasting legacy. His reign was marked by instability, with multiple depositions and eventual violent death—either in battle or by ambush—in 1476/1477. The region of Wallachia, far from being solidified under his rule, remained vulnerable and fragmented. No enduring institutions or systems of governance arose from his leadership, leaving behind a legacy steeped in blood rather than sustainable statecraft.

The theatre of horrors

Nailing headwear to heads

Vlad III was infamous for his brutal and theatrical methods of punishment, which he used to instill fear and assert his authority. One of the most notorious stories recounts how he received foreign envoys, Ottoman messengers, who refused to remove their headwear in his presence, citing religious custom. Offended by what he perceived as an act of disrespect, Vlad ordered that their turbans be nailed to their skulls, effectively executing them in a gruesome display of power and a warning to others. This act exemplifies his reputation for ruthless, symbolic violence and helped cement his legacy as one of history's most terrifying rulers. However, this act paled in comparison to many of the other acts of violence committed by Vlad III.

The Forest of the Impaled

Perhaps the most notorious act of cruelty was the "Forest of the Impaled." When Sultan Mehmed II marched into Wallachia with over 100,000 troops, he found the road to Vlad's capital lined with thousands of rotting corpses on stakes, men, women, and children. The psychological effect was so powerful that it reportedly helped convince the Sultan to withdraw.

The poor and the sick

In a horrifying attempt to "cleanse" his realm, Vlad invited all of Wallachia's poor, sick, and disabled to a grand feast in Târgoviște. After feeding them, he locked the doors and set the building ablaze. His stated goal: to rid the land of "burdensome" people who could not contribute to society, was an early form of ethnic, racial and demographic cleansing.

Punishing dishonesty and laziness

Merchants who were caught cheating customers were impaled. One legend recounts a foreign merchant whose goods were stolen in Vlad's capital. Upon hearing this, Vlad ordered the thief to execute and restore the stolen money, adding extra coins to test the merchant's honesty. When the merchant returned the extra coins, Vlad rewarded him. If he had kept it, he likely would have died violently.

Infidelity and adultery

Needless to say, Vlad's punishments extended into moral policing. Women accused of adultery were often impaled or mutilated. Some were disemboweled or had their breasts cut off and then were skinned alive. These acts were not only barbaric but served as cruel public warnings.

His notorious brutal and uncompromising enforcement was not just reserved for women guilty of moral and social codes. His punishments extended to men guilty of infidelity and adultery.

Vlad viewed such acts as not only personal betrayals but also as threats to social order and divine law. Men found guilty of adultery were subjected to severe and often fatal punishments similar to women, including impalement.

As in the case of women, the men found guilty would often be mutilated and then skinned alive or executed in ways designed to match the nature of their crimes, such as dismemberment or being forced to witness the execution of their partners, before receiving their punishment.

Vlad's iron-fisted morality reflected his broader strategy of ruling through fear and terror, aiming to maintain absolute control and discipline in Wallachia.

Execution of the lazy peasants

In another chilling episode, Vlad observed some peasants resting under a tree during working hours. Outraged, he ordered all of them impaled to set an example about the value of labor.

Hero or monster?

To Romanians, particularly during the wave of nationalism in the 19th and 20th centuries, Vlad the Impaler emerged as a powerful folk hero. He was celebrated as a staunch defender of the homeland, a resolute leader who stood firm against Ottoman expansion and became a lasting symbol of national sovereignty and defiance. His reputation in Romania, especially in the region of Wallachia, remains largely positive. There, he is remembered as a just, if harsh, ruler who used brutal methods to preserve order and protect his people from foreign domination.

Outside of Romania, however, the image of Vlad took a far darker turn. In Western Europe, early printed pamphlets, particularly from German sources, depicted him as a monstrous sadist, reveling in torture and impalement. These lurid accounts, though often exaggerated, were not entirely without basis in historical events, and they cemented Vlad's reputation in the West as a figure of almost supernatural cruelty. Similarly, Ottoman chronicles portrayed him as a barbaric enemy whose methods inspired fear even among the seasoned soldiers of the empire.

In popular culture, Vlad's legend evolved even further. Stripped of historical nuance, his name and deeds were absorbed into the gothic imagination, ultimately inspiring Bram Stoker's fictional character: Count Dracula. This transformation into a vampire lord propelled Vlad into the realm of horror fiction, where he has remained for more than a century, not as a ruler, but as a mythic monster, feeding the fears and fascinations of countless generations. His legacy, therefore, remains deeply polarized, a hero to some, a monster to others, and an enduring legend to all.

Therefore, Vlad III, known both as "The Impaler" and as a fierce defender of Wallachia, occupies a unique and paradoxical place in history, a figure who defies easy categorization. His life and reign were marked by a brutal determination to secure his principality's independence in a perilous geopolitical landscape dominated by powerful enemies and internal treachery. As a ruler, Vlad wielded cruelty as a tool of governance, enforcing law and order through terrifying punishments that simultaneously quelled disorder and sowed fear. His iron will and military cunning earned him a reputation as a relentless protector of his homeland against the Ottoman Empire's encroachment. Yet, the same methods that carved out his power base also isolated him politically and socially, undermining prospects for lasting stability and cooperation with neighboring states.

The duality of Vlad's legacy, hero to some, monster to others, reflects the complexities of his era and the challenges faced by a small principality trapped between empires. To his people, particularly in Romanian national consciousness, Vlad is a symbol of resistance and patriotism, a man who chose ruthless means in pursuit of sovereignty and order in a world where weakness invited annihilation. His harsh justice system arguably brought relative safety to a land otherwise rife with lawlessness, and his uncompromising stance against the boyars highlighted his commitment to centralizing authority in the service of the state rather than individual greed.

Conversely, to the outside world, especially Western Europe and the Ottoman Empire, Vlad was a figure of terror, his cruelty amplified into legend and myth, obscuring the political context of his actions.

His penchant for theatrical, often grotesque, punishments became the basis for a narrative of sadistic barbarism that eclipsed his role as a political and military leader. The transformation of Vlad into the vampiric Count Dracula further distanced the historical man from his mythologized image, casting him forever in the shadows of horror fiction rather than history.

Ultimately, Vlad III's life underscores the blurred lines between tyranny and heroism, justice and brutality, order and chaos. His reign did not produce enduring institutions or peace, and his legacy is irrevocably stained by the bloodshed that accompanied his rule. Yet, the endurance of his legend, whether as a national hero or a nightmarish villain, attests to the profound impact he had on the cultural and historical imagination. Vlad the Impaler remains a potent reminder that history's most memorable figures are often those whose lives reveal the complexities and contradictions of the human condition in times of conflict.

In evaluating Vlad III, it is crucial to move beyond simplistic labels and appreciate the full spectrum of his character and actions. He was neither purely a tyrant nor an unblemished defender, but a product of his turbulent time: a man whose ruthless pursuit of power and protection left a legacy as lasting as it is divisive, shaping not only Wallachian history but the cultural landscape of Europe for centuries to come.

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Extensive Notes:

The Forest of the Impaled in more detail

As outlined in the main text, one of the most infamous and terrifying acts attributed to Vlad III was the creation of the so-called "Forest of the Impaled." This macabre display occurred during the 15th century in Wallachia, where Vlad ruled with a brutal sense of justice and an iron fist. According to both Ottoman and European sources, during one of the Ottoman incursions into his lands, Vlad captured thousands of prisoners, soldiers, suspected traitors, and local collaborators. Instead of executing them quietly, he had them impaled on long wooden stakes and arranged the corpses in a vast field near Târgoviște. This gruesome spectacle reportedly stretched for kilometres and was meant as a horrifying psychological message to his enemies: this was the fate awaiting those who dared cross him.

The display was not only a military tactic but also a statement of Vlad's absolute authority and cruelty. When Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II arrived and saw the field, it is said that he turned back rather than face such a foe, so disturbed was he by the scale of death and suffering. Some chronicles estimate the number of impaled corpses to be as high as 20,000, though the exact number is uncertain and may be exaggerated for effect. Regardless, the "Forest of the Impaled" entered history as one of the most chilling acts of terror warfare in medieval Europe.

A particularly dark anecdote is often included in retellings of this episode, highlighting Vlad's merciless nature. As the story goes, while he was dining among the impaled corpses, one of his servants, overcome by the stench of decay, commented that the smell was unbearable. Vlad, displeased by what he saw as weakness or disrespect, ordered the man to be impaled himself, saying he would be better off above the stench than breathing it. Whether apocryphal or not, this tale serves to reinforce Vlad's terrifying reputation and the message that loyalty and silence were the only ways to survive under his rule.

Modern psychological analyses of Vlad III

Modern psychological analyses of Vlad III often attempt to understand the complex interplay between his historical context, personality traits, and his notorious brutality. Vlad lived during the 15th century in a time marked by political instability, constant threats of invasion, and brutal power struggles, particularly involving the Ottoman Empire. Psychologists and historians today frequently view him through the lens of trauma and survival, suggesting that his extreme cruelty may have been a response shaped by early childhood experiences and the violent environment in which he was raised.

Vlad's early life was marked by trauma and psychological stress. As a political hostage, taken by the Ottoman Empire to guarantee his father's loyalty, Vlad spent years away from his homeland under harsh conditions. This period likely exposed him to significant psychological distress, including feelings of powerlessness and abandonment. Modern trauma theory would suggest that such formative experiences could contribute to the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or at least deeply impact his worldview, fostering a heightened vigilance and a ruthless approach to threats. His subsequent reign, characterized by extreme punishments and public displays of impalement, can be interpreted as exerting absolute control, deterring enemies through fear, thereby compensating for his earlier vulnerabilities.

From a personality perspective, some psychological profiles speculate that Vlad might exhibit traits consistent with what is now understood as psychopathy or narcissistic personality disorder. His relentless pursuit of power and control, combined with a lack of empathy toward his enemies and even his subjects, aligns with characteristics such as grandiosity, manipulation, and cruelty. However, it is crucial to contextualize these traits within his historical and cultural milieu, where brutality was often a necessary political tool. Moreover, Vlad's actions might also reflect a form of authoritarian leadership style, driven by a rigid worldview that prioritized order and loyalty above all else.

Insofar as modern psychology offers useful frameworks to understand Vlad III's behavior, any analysis must balance the line between clinical diagnosis and historical context. His brutality may be seen both as a product of personal psychological trauma and as a strategic response to the chaotic and dangerous world he inhabited. Thus, Vlad the Impaler's psychological profile remains a complex mosaic of trauma, personality, and historical necessity rather than a straightforward case of madness or evil.

Examples of similar behavior in other historical figures

Ivan IV of Russia (Ivan the Terrible):

Like Vlad III, Ivan IV grew up in a violent and unstable environment marked by political intrigue and personal trauma. Both rulers are infamous for their cruelty and brutal tactics to consolidate power. Psychologically, Ivan's reign is often interpreted as driven by deep-seated paranoia and a desire for control, much like Vlad's ruthless punishments. Both may have experienced childhood trauma that contributed to their authoritarian styles and violent methods. Yet, like Vlad, Ivan combined this cruelty with a strategic vision for strengthening their states, making their brutality part of a broader political calculus.

Genghis Khan:

While Vlad's cruelty was often personal and punitive, Genghis Khan's ruthlessness was strategic and expansionist. Psychologically, both figures display traits associated with dominance, high resilience, and fearlessness. Genghis Khan's early life hardship and exile arguably shaped his relentless ambition and capacity for extreme violence. Similar to Vlad, his reputation for cruelty functioned as a psychological weapon to instill fear and maintain control. Both illustrate how trauma and environmental harshness can forge leaders who employ terror as a tool of governance.

Caligula (Roman Emperor):

Caligula's rule is frequently cited as an example of erratic and cruel leadership, often attributed to possible mental illness or extreme narcissism. Vlad's behavior sometimes parallels this in its intensity and apparent lack of empathy, though Vlad's brutality was more systematic and politically motivated, whereas Caligula's was often erratic and self-indulgent. Psychologically, both may exhibit signs of narcissistic personality traits, but Vlad's actions were arguably rooted more in trauma and pragmatic statecraft than pure caprice or madness.

Richard III of England:

Richard III's historical reputation is complex, sometimes painted as a ruthless usurper but also as a capable, if ruthless, leader. Like Vlad, Richard operated in a violent political environment and was accused of eliminating rivals to secure power. Psychologically, both might be understood as leaders shaped by insecurity and the brutal necessities of dynastic politics, employing fear and strategic cruelty. However, unlike Vlad's extreme physical punishments, Richard's ruthlessness was more politically calculated and less theatrical.

These comparisons highlight that Vlad III's psychological profile shares common threads with other rulers shaped by trauma and violent contexts, who used cruelty and fear as political tools. Yet, each leader's specific behaviors and motivations were influenced by their unique personal histories and the demands of their times.

Modern psychological analysis theories and concepts

Modern psychological analyses of Vlad III (The Impaler) often draw upon several established psychological theories and frameworks to understand his behavior, personality, and leadership style. Here are some key psychological theories commonly referenced in such analyses:

Trauma Theory and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Vlad's early life experiences, being held as a political hostage by the Ottoman Empire and exposed to harsh imprisonment, are analyzed through the lens of trauma theory. This theory suggests that severe traumatic experiences, especially in childhood, can profoundly impact emotional regulation, worldview, and behavior. PTSD symptoms might include hypervigilance, emotional numbness, and aggression, which some scholars believe help explain Vlad's extreme ruthlessness and preemptive cruelty as mechanisms to regain control and prevent vulnerability.

Psychodynamic theory

Rooted in Freudian psychology, psychodynamic theory looks at unconscious motivations and early childhood experiences as drivers of adult behavior. Vlad's behavior may be seen as an expression of unresolved internal conflicts stemming from his traumatic upbringing and feelings of abandonment. His extreme punishments and displays of power could be interpreted as overcompensation for feelings of helplessness and fear during his youth, along with a need to assert dominance to maintain a fragile sense of control.

Personality disorder framework

Some modern analyses speculate about personality disorders such as Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) or Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) (sometimes associated with psychopathy). Traits like grandiosity, lack of empathy, manipulativeness, and ruthless exploitation of others fit these frameworks. Vlad's combination of charisma, strategic thinking, and cruelty can align with these personality disorder models, although diagnosing historical figures remains speculative and cautious.

Authoritarian personality theory

Developed by Theodor Adorno and others, this theory explains how certain personalities are predisposed to favor strict hierarchical order, conformity, and obedience to authority, often accompanied by intolerance for dissent. Vlad's governance style, characterized by harsh punishments and absolute control, can be examined as an authoritarian personality in action, someone who employs fear and brutality to maintain social order and eliminate perceived threats.

Evolutionary psychology and leadership theories

From an evolutionary perspective, Vlad's cruelty may be seen as adaptive behavior in a brutal, survival-driven environment. His use of fear as a deterrent aligns with the idea that displaying dominance and ruthlessness can secure loyalty and discourage rebellion in high-risk political contexts. Leadership theories emphasize how strong, even ruthless, leaders can arise in times of crisis to stabilize society, suggesting Vlad's behavior, while extreme, served an evolutionary function for his principality's survival.

Needless to say, psychological analyses of Vlad III synthesize insight from trauma theory, psychodynamic concepts, personality disorder frameworks, authoritarian personality theory, and evolutionary psychology. These combined approaches help build a nuanced picture of Vlad as a historical figure shaped by personal trauma, cultural context, and political necessity, not merely as a villain but as a complex individual with both pathological and pragmatic traits.

How a Stolen Diamond Necklace Helped Destroy the French Monarchy

Forged letters, stolen jewels, a gullible cardinal, a cunning conwoman and an innocent queen left with a shattered reputation … the affair of the diamond necklace had it all. In fact, after Marie Antoinette’s guillotining, Napoleon pinned her downfall on the scandal declaring “perhaps the death of the Queen dated from that.”

Samuel Mee explains.

A presumed depiction of Jeanne de la Motte. Available here.

The root of the problem

The diamond necklace at the heart of the scandal was commissioned by King Louis XV in the early 1770s as a gift for his latest official mistress, Madame du Barry. The jewellers, Charles Boehmer and Paul Bassenge, spent years making a masterpiece with more than 600 diamonds and at enormous cost.

They took too long, though. Louis XV died of smallpox in 1774 and his grandson Louis XVI banished du Barry. Desperate to recoup their investment, they tried to sell it to Queen Marie Antoinette but she reportedly declared “we have more need of ships than of diamonds.”

By the early 1780s Boehmer and Bassenge were desperate. At this point Jeanne de Valois-Saint-Rémy, a self-styled countess known as Jeanne de la Motte, came up with an elaborate plan. 

The start of the con

Jeanne had already ingratiated herself with Cardinal Prince Louis de Rohan. He was out of favour with the Queen due to previous insults to her mother, and was desperate to restore his standing. Jeanne convinced Rohan that she was in the Queen’s inner circle as a way of getting money from him and began forging letters from Marie Antoinette. Promises of forgiveness were eventually mixed with hints that the Queen wanted to discreetly buy the diamond necklace. The letters were signed "Marie Antoinette de France" even though French royals signed with only their given names but Rohan did not realise this. (This mistake later helped convince the King that Rohan was involved, as he didn’t believe he would be unaware of this etiquette).

Rohan agreed to act as intermediary and signed a contract with the jewellers Boehmer and Bassenge to buy the necklace on the Queen’s behalf.

To persuade him the whole setup was genuine, Jeanne had arranged a night time meeting in the gardens of Versailles. She hired a prostitute, Nicole Le Guay d’Oliva, who resembled Marie Antoinette. Nicole greeted Rohan in the dark, dressed in a white gown and plumed hat, and gave him a rose as a mark of her favour. This encounter in the Queen’s private grounds, convinced Rohan he was truly back in her favour. Luckily for the conspirators, he had never had a private audience with Marie Antoinette and knew her only by sight and from a distance at court functions. He was also desperate to believe.

Once Cardinal de Rohan secured the necklace from Boehmer and Bassenge he gave it to Jeanne, who assured him she would discreetly deliver it to the Queen. Instead, she and her husband Nicolas de la Motte immediately smuggled it out of Paris. It was dismantled and the individual stones sold across Europe, many in London.

In the following months, Boehmer made repeated attempts to secure payment, first discreetly and then more forcefully.

Boehmer approached Rohan directly, pressing him for the money or confirmation that the Queen would soon pay.

Then, in desperation, he sent a letter directly to Queen Marie Antoinette in the summer of 1785, asking for payment. Unsurprisingly, the Queen demanded an investigation .Only then did Rohan realise he may have been duped - he was summoned to court on 15 August 1785 to explain himself. Up to that point, he still believed he had acted on the Queen’s behalf.

The fraud made public

Rohan turned up at Versailles in his full ecclesiastical regalia, preparing to officiate Mass in the Royal Chapel. Instead, he was confronted by King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette.

Rohan produced the forged letters from "Marie Antoinette" and described the midnight garden meeting with the woman he believed had been the Queen. She of course denounced it all as lies and fabrications and King Louis XVI ordered Rohan's arrest. This was a bold move, given Rohan’s status as a cardinal and member of one of the most powerful noble families. He was imprisoned in the Bastille that same day.

But the Queen’s insistence he be arrested in public backfired. Instead of publicly clearing her name, the arrest gave the impression that she was embroiled in plotting and intrigue.

The aftermath in court

Meanwhile, Jeanne de la Motte fled, was caught and tried. Again, the Queen thought she would be vindicated. But it quickly became a referendum on her character and fuelled anti-royalty sentiment.

Rohan was tried by the Parlement of Paris, not a royal court, which made it more sympathetic to him and less controlled by the monarchy. Sympathy shifted away from the monarchy and toward Rohan, who appeared gullible but not malicious. He was acquitted. The court found he had acted foolishly but not criminally and he was stripped of his court positions but remained free. His acquittal was seen as a rebuke to the Queen.

Jeanne de la Motte claimed she was simply a go-between and scapegoat. She denied the forgeries and blamed everyone else, especially the Queen. She was convicted. She was publicly whipped, branded with a V (for voleuse – thief), and imprisoned in the Salpêtrière, a supposedly inescapable prison. She still managed to escape and fled to London (this is a tale in its own right).

Nicole d’Oliva was also acquitted, as she had been only a pawn in the deception.

The end result was that trial was seen as a symbol of royal corruption, even though the Queen had been 100% innocent. And the scandal hardened public cynicism - it was, as Napoleon noted, the first step on Marie Antionette’s path to the guillotine. 

About the author

Samuel Mee is founder of The Antique Ring Boutique (https://www.antiqueringboutique.com/), based in London. He’s a member of LAPADA and the Society of Jewellery Historians.

Further reading

The story of Jeanne de la Motte in London: https://englishhistoryauthors.blogspot.com/2013/11/the-diamond-necklace-affair.html

Affair of the diamond necklace: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affair_of_the_Diamond_Necklace

Madame du Barry: https://en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/history/great-characters/madame-barry

Cardinal Rohan:https://queensransom.wordpress.com/2009/06/15/cardinal-rohan/

To What Extent had a Personality Cult Developed Prior to Lenin's Death in 1924?

Lenin became the most influential person in what was to become the Soviet Union, following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. But, to what extent had his cult of personality been developed prior to his death in 1924? Ed Long considers this question.

Lenin with a cat in 1922.

Stalin v Lenin

This topic has received far too little direct attention since two articles in the early 1980s by Nina Tumarkin, and although referred to in passing by many of the more recent texts that deal with post-Tsarist Russia, it deserves a more in-depth treatment than it has received thus far. By comparison with the far more well-known and well-documented Cult of Stalin, Lenin has lost out by being considerably less well documented, and as a result far less well known. Based on the number of words penned on the use of the Lenin Cult as part of Stalin’s apparatus in order to cement his position as Vozhd, the evidence is overwhelming that a Cult of Personality centred around Lenin was in existence after the latter’s death in January 1924. However, what is less certain is to what extent such a Cult predated Lenin’s demise, and was then constructed by Stalin in order to portray himself as the "high priest [... and] theorist"[1] of Leninism, thereby driving the ideals of the October Revolution and The Civil War forward. In fact, a Lenin 'Cult' did not exist in any meaningful way prior to his death at the age of 53. Instead, I will argue here that whilst a certain level of 'mystique' may have surrounded Lenin prior to his death, starting perhaps from the time of the failed attempt on his life in 1918, this did not constitute a fully formed Cult of Personality.

A posthumous Cult of Personality?

The evidence to suggest that the Lenin Cult was “posthumous”[2] as Fitzpatrick accurately describes, is truly overwhelming.  "[T]he Lenin cult [that was] so evident in the immediate aftermath of his death"[3] was the creation of Krupskaya and, to a far greater extent, Stalin, both of whom had a vested interest in erecting the Lenin Cult in order to ensure a smooth succession of power. As the "high priest" and "high priestess of the Lenin cult"[4] their ability to determine the ideological shape of post-Lenin Russia was central to stability and particularly Stalin's rise to power. Tumarkin describes the work also undertaken by others beyond Stalin and Krupskaya to ensure that Lenin took his rightful place as the "Man-God of Communism"[5] in the Communist pantheon. Indeed, by the beginning of February 1924, the cult had already reached "nationwide"[6] proportions. To effect this end, Bonch-Bruevich had made "many of the arrangements for the portraits, sculptures, photographs and movies depicting the leader during the brief period of his active rule"[7], "Lunacharskii [...] immortali[sed] Lenin as a genius and Creator [...] when he took charge of the competition for the design of a permanent mausoleum of stone that would enshrine Lenin forever"[8] which would "surpass Mecca and Jerusalem in its human significance"[9]. Lenin's funeral was the centerpiece in rolling-out the new cult to the Russian people, and Tumarkin is right to emphasize its unifying effect on the Russian people as "an organi[s]ed system of rituals and symbols whose collective function was [...] to induce the public to go through the motions of revering Lenin as an outward sign of solidarity"[10]. Crucially, it was 'organized' and orchestrated and as I shall argue below, this was not the case to any great extent prior to the Lenin’s death. Whilst it may have been designed to unify the Russian public, it divided many in Sovnarkom. Stalin got to work as soon as he was able, throwing Trotsky off the scent immediately by establishing himself front and center during Trotsky's vacation and convalescence at the moment of Lenin's funeral. Service's view that "Stalin's leadership of the funeral commission put him at a crucial advantage"[11], due to the fact that Stalin was in many senses coming from behind in order to establish his position as a leading Bolshevik, reveals how important this leadership opportunity was for Stalin and hence how crucial it was that he took full advantage of it. Trotsky's prominence as the facilitator of the October Revolution, Chairmanship of the Petrograd Soviet and leadership of the MRC and Red Guards allowed him to portray himself as a greater defender of the revolution than Stalin. As leader of the Red Army and Commissar for War during the Civil War from 1918 his position as de facto right hand man to Lenin was solidified even more. Whilst this is not to denigrate Stalin's importance in these events, nonetheless he had significant ground to make up relative to Trotsky and so it was crucial that he took immediate advantage of the situation in January 1924. Furthermore, as Stalin "had no time to write a lengthy piece of work before 1917"[12] about Lenin's work, he clearly realized that the time was right to do so. Thus, his Foundations of Leninism, published by 1924 and in that year also delivered in the form of nine lectures at the Sverdlov University[13] established Stalin not only as the rightful heir to Lenin's throne, but also as the chief arbiter of Leninist doctrine thereafter. Montefiore's view that "Lenin was a tower and Stalin a little finger"[14] accords perfectly with Service's contention that Stalin was "a mere pupil of the great man"[15]; the torchbearer shining the light of Lenin's example for all to follow. This light promised a brighter future in Russia, and in following Lenin's lead, Stalin's role as benevolent and selfless disciple was indisputable. In much the same way as Hitler was able to use Mein Kampf as the blueprint for the new Germany after January 30th 1933, having of course formulated his ideas in and after his incarceration in Landsberg Prison after the failed Putsch in November 1923, Stalin was able to use the Foundations of Leninism in precisely the same way. He was the keeper of Lenin's legacy, "a village sorcerer who held his subjects in his dark thrall”[16], and as such had supreme ideological control over the Russian people, and even more crucially against 'wreckers', 'deviationists', and any others within and without the party who presumed to challenge his control. Those who stood in his way stood in Lenin's way. Such sacrilege would be punished in the strongest possible terms; Yagoda, Yezhov and later Beria awaited with their torture chambers primed and tools sharpened. The bloodshed here, justifiable in Lenin's own words by the epithet: “Even if 90% of the people perish, what matter if the other 10% live to see revolution become universal”[17], makes the icepick to the back of Trotsky's head seem humane by comparison. In the later 1920s, this method of relentlessly guarding Lenin's legacy was key to Stalin's rise from party notable to Vozhd. The claim, then, that the Lenin cult was only constructed after his death has a lot of merit. This was indeed a powerful tool that allowed Stalin to claim that his policies were being promulgated only in accordance with Lenin's wishes, and therefore to distance himself from much of the chaos that prevailed in the later 1920s and 30s[18]. As such, we can conclude with certainty that the cult existed after Lenin's death. However, to do so is not to say anything new; what is both more prescient and controversial is the extent to which the cult existed prior to his death.

Folklore or cult?

That a 'cult' existed prior to Lenin's death is shrouded in uncertainty not only from an historic, but also a semantic point of view. It is not the purpose of this work to deny the existence of tales and myths about Lenin prior to his death. Panchenko discusses the existence of such "folklore"[19] and the extent to which it was in fact "fakelore"[20] but confines his analysis to the period "in the first decades after the Revolution"[21] - clearly this also encompasses the years 1917-24, and therefore could imply that Lenin mythology was in existence prior to his death, however on two levels this is not compelling evidence. First of all, Panchenko's own words are revealing: Whilst discussing such rhymes as came out about Lenin, for example "Il'ich's red arse"[22] and the 'Voronezh tale' in which Lenin "chops them like a cabbage [w]ith his sharp sword"[23] (them being the whites), he states that these forms of eulogising Lenin are far more difficult to classify on the same level as the much more obvious Cult of Stalin established later on; "the cultural forms themselves, ranging from rhetoric to rituals and representing the distinctive character of the veneration of Lenin in the Soviet Union are not as homogeneous, simple and transparent"[24]. The clear implication here, then, is that its scale relative to Stalin would immediately lead us to conclude that the use of the word 'cult' is not appropriate. By extension, the instances that Panchenko describes seem, at least at their inception, to have no official sanction by Sovnarkom. As such, the use of the word 'cult' is totally misleading by this yardstick. Secondly, the latter half of Panchenko's article deals with further instances which he describes once again as "folktales"; the 'Muzhitskii skaz o Lenine', published in 1924, the 'Khitryi Lenin' by Akul'shin, published in 1925, and 'Lenin ne umer - on zhiv' published in 1925-6[25]. Whilst the dates given are only those of publication, not necessarily inception, and indeed Panchenko himself claims that many were heard by the authors as early as 1918, this is scant evidence on which to claim that a cult, or even a well-established folk tradition, was in existence prior to Lenin's death. However, Panchenko gives us a vital clue as to the nature of Lenin's aura that pre-dated his demise, and is especially important as tales such as those examples above were a hugely important precursor to the later, fully-fledged cult that was built by Stalin after 1924, whose "contours were shaped by traditional peasant culture"[26]. These tales, then, were the early building blocks of Stalin's cult of Lenin, but before 1924 had yet to be organized into any coherent structure.

White's analysis develops the idea that the cult was in existence before Lenin's death, and indeed over-extends to the point where credibility is lost. He claims, in contradiction to the ideas set-out earlier in this argument, that “Stalin did not create the Lenin Cult. He found it already in existence and propelled by the momentum that Lenin himself had given it”[27]. Perhaps the basis of White's claim owes something to ideas such as those outlined by Panchenko above. However, by doing so we have jumped from the concept of 'folklore' to a 'cult' far too quickly. We have seen that there were indeed seeds for Stalin to nourish once the ideal situation presented itself on Lenin's death. However, for us to accept White's position we would have to accept two equally difficult claims. First, that Stalin's role in creating what we would recognize as a bona-fide 'cult' was much less than we have already established, either before or after Lenin's death, and second that Lenin himself played an active role in creating the cult of his own personality during his lifetime. The former claim has already been shown to be indefensible, but the latter is worthy of further discussion. Prior to the October revolution, it was in Lenin's, and other leading Bolsheviks', best interests to remain incognito. His previous encounters with the Okhrana, in the wake of his brother's execution in 1887 and after 1903 as part of the clandestine revolutionary underground, had shown him the value of anonymity. Indeed, applying for a passport in 1917 he was forced to shave of his facial hair in order to be successful, and even after the October revolution it took some time for him to grow it back completely. Being totally unrecognizable had its advantages but also its disadvantages it seems. Nonetheless, up to late 1917 Lenin was clearly playing an active role in preventing himself from being widely known, in direct contradiction of White's views. Lenin's attempts were so effective, indeed, that "even in the Civil War he had difficulty in getting recognized by the general public"[28]. This goes directly against Tumarkin's assertion that "the Lenin cult [...] developed in the context of the Russian Civil War"[29] - this seems unlikely, except insofar as Lenin was the acknowledged supreme leader of the Reds, and perhaps some echoes of the attempt on his life (see below) were still being felt but not by the Russian population at large. By 1920 when the Civil War was drawing to a close, then, the majority of Russia did not know what Lenin looked like and so to claim that a personality cult existed at this point and that Lenin himself had played a key role in its inception is to exaggerate the situation wildly.

Lenin’s role in creating his own Cult of Personality

Figes also contends that the cult was in existence prior to Lenin's death but diverges from White's analysis as he is careful to point out that Lenin played no role in creating it himself (indeed Lenin railed against such an outcome, trying to "put a brake on it when he recovered" from the assassination attempt[30]). The failed attempt on Lenin's life by Fanny Kaplan on August 30th 1918 after he had spoken at the Hammer and Sickle armaments factory is seen by Figes as the key moment where the cult sprang into existence; "Lenin's quick recovery was declared a miracle in the Bolshevik press. He was hailed as a Christ-like figure, blessed with supernatural powers, who was not afraid to sacrifice his own life for the good of the people"[31]. Whether, of course, the press beyond the Bolsheviks' own took as much notice and elevated the attempt so highly seems unlikely. Figes then goes on to say that "[i]t was the start of the Lenin cult - a cult designed by Bolsheviks, apparently against Lenin's will, to promote their leader as the 'people's tsar'"[32]. Figes is therefore in broad agreement with Tumarkin, who more plausibly states that "the first stage of its formation was the spontaneous mythologi[s]ing of Lenin that followed upon an attempt on his life [... o]n 30 August 1918"[33]. They differ importantly, as we have already noted on the use of the word 'cult'. Here, Figes goes too far but Tumarkin only refers to the reaction only being a first step towards its construction - "the cult of Lenin had been set on its course "[34]. Nonetheless, as a result of Lenin's virtual resurrection, photos of him appeared in the 'Lenin Corner' also known as the 'Red Corner' or 'Holy Spot' in peasant dwellings[35] (broadly agreeing with Panchenko's ideas as discussed above). Service corroborates Figes' assertion that the cult started to be established in the wake of the assassination attempt[36] but without putting a timescale on precisely when. All of these three accounts suffer from a common weakness - none go beyond asserting that a cult existed as early as August 1918, and proceed to provide only scant evidence to prove that this was actually the case. Figes' account suffers from this fault the least. It seems plausible, but not especially likely, that the Bolshevik press (over which Lenin had tight rein, crucially so as a propaganda weapon against first the Provisional Government and later The Whites in the October Revolution and Civil War respectively) and the Bolshevik leadership (above whom Lenin resided atop the Sovnarkom pyramid, his power here shown for example in pushing through the NEP in 1921 amidst huge opposition and earlier forcing the pace of the seizure of power from the April Theses to the October Revolution itself 6 months later) were able to create such a cult in spite of Lenin's express wishes. From the point of view of the latter, this would have been hugely insubordinate, and perhaps betray not only the ideals of the revolution itself (eg in creating a quasi-religion which would contradict Marxist principles and also in elevating Lenin into a 'class' of his own) but also exacerbate Lenin's worries about, and later explicit orders against, factionalism[37]. Perhaps, though, we can arrive at a middle ground. If an aura did surround Lenin, from the assassination attempt and later mystical stories which resulted from it, then it was not as part of an officially sanctioned ideology. Instead, it was merely an invention along the lines of Panchenko's thinking as outlined above. Once again, to claim that a 'cult' existed from the point of the assassination onwards is hugely problematic.

Timing

Finally, let us look more closely at the timing of the alleged establishment of the Lenin Cult. We have already found that by the end of the Civil War, Lenin was not well enough known to be said to be surrounded by a Personality Cult. An important effect of Fanya Kaplan's attempt against Lenin's life was the legacy of medical difficulties bestowed upon him - she did succeed in killing him, it just took a long time to play out. As a result of one of the three shots fired lodging in Lenin's neck and leading to multiple strokes, Lenin was often wheelchair-bound. After his second stroke in December 1921, he was allowed to dictate for only '5 to 10 minutes a day'. As a result, Lenin had become Stalin's prisoner[38]. He had also become a prisoner insofar as he was isolated from not only the central party leadership, allowing Stalin crucial opportunities to subvert his wishes, but also from the Russian people themselves. For the next two years or so, Lenin's health prevented him from interacting effectively with either of these groups, and indeed was so ill and unbeknown to Russians in general and his own Guards in particular that he was denied entry to the Kremlin in 1923[39]! Under such circumstances, it would have been undesirable for 'the real' Lenin to be well known but it is possible that at this point it did become desirable for thoughts of how to secure Lenin's legacy to start forming in the minds of leading Bolsheviks in general and Stalin in particular. For this reason, it is highly plausible that a sanctioned and sanitized version of Lenin was starting to be effected, and the previous concern raised by Figes that Lenin was averse to such a development became moot. “The Cult of Lenin, which Lenin himself opposed and managed to keep in check until incapacitated by a stroke in March 1923”[40] could now start to coalesce for two reasons - firstly because Lenin's health was so critical that the regime needed to be safeguarded, and that secondly this could, indeed had, to take place now that Lenin was no longer an obstacle to its establishment, being too ill to mount any effective opposition to such a scheme. Tumarkin, therefore, is vindicated in stating that "the elevation of Leninism to the status of holy writ [...] developed in 1923 in response to this concern [about life after Lenin] and reached national proportions after Lenin's death"[41], i.e. the process started during his profound illness but was only fully realized upon his death. Prior to this, it was merely "piecemeal"[42]and disorganized. Only at this point were steps taken to try to safeguard his legacy by, for example, the Moscow Committee setting up a 'Lenin Institute' in 1923 to organize, catalogue, preserve and conserve many of Lenin's documents[43]. Only at this point was a concerted effort made by the regime to "organi[s]e[...] and promote[...]" a cult to act as a "stabili[s]ing and legitimi[s]ing force in Soviet political life"[44]. Between March 1923 and January 1924, therefore, the Cult of Personality of Lenin started to take shape mostly due to Lenin's inability to stop it. As such, it picked up and started to put together the pieces that we have already examined; Panchenko's myths, tales and folklore that developed in the wake of the 1918 assassination attempt being the key components. Only at this point were they put together to form the 'cult' that Stalin used from that point on.

Lenin as a stepping-stone for Stalin’s rise to power

Therefore, a 'Cult' of Personality of Lenin did not exist prior to his death. Events during his premiership may have facilitated planning for the after-Lenin zeitgeist by Stalin and Krupskaya, in particular, and these took on a more urgent aspect in the last ten months of his life. Prior to this, no 'cult' existed. This was for a number of reasons. Lenin was not well known enough by the end of the Civil War for us to term what Lenin legends that did exist sufficient for us to accept the existence of a 'cult'. After 1921, Lenin was so ill that it was undesirable for him to be well known as he actually was, but crucially he was able to retain enough control over his own affairs that he was able to withstand any attempts to create a 'cult' against his will. It was only once he was unable to safeguard his own reputation that leading Bolsheviks did so on his behalf. Therefore, Stalin was able to start building his own “cult of impersonality"[45] as a testimony to Lenin's life and work in the months prior to the latter's death, but this only started to take full expression as Stalin led the funeral oration to Lenin, crucially with Trotsky absent, on January 28th 1924. In the same way that in Stalin's regime, “Kirov's murder provided an ideal pretext [to] solidify[] the power of the dictator [...] The bonds of institutional and clan loyalties, along with the vestiges of collective leadership and intraparty democracy, were the last impediments to sole and unquestioned power”[46], Stalin's construction of the Lenin Cult after his death was the first crucial step to removing the first 'impediments' to Stalin's path to power as Lenin's sole successor.

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Bibliography

Figes, O 1996: “A People’s Tragedy”. Pimlico, London.

Fitzpatrick, S 2008: “The Russian Revolution”. OUP, Oxford.

Khlevniuk, O 2015: "Stalin: New Biography of a Dictator". Yale University Press, New Haven.

Lenin, V 1922: "Continuation of the notes" to the "Last Will & Testament".  Accessed online from https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/dec/testamnt/congress.htm

Lenin Q IN Dewey, J. 1929: "Impressions of Soviet Russia and the revolutionary world". New Republic Inc, New York.

Montefiore, S 2014: “Stalin: Court of the Red Tsar”. Phoenix Books, London.

Panachenko, A 2005: “The Cult of Lenin and ‘Soviet Folklore’”. Folklorica X (1); 18-38.

Service, R 2000: “Lenin”. MacMillan, London.

Service, R 2004: “Stalin”. MacMillan, London.

Tucker, R 1979: “The rise of Stalin’s Personality Cult”. The American Historical Review 84 (2); 347-366.

Tumarkin, N 1981: “Religion, Bolshevism, and the Origins of the Lenin Cult”. The Russian Review 40 (1); 35-46.

Tumarkin, N 1983: “Political Ritual and the Cult of Lenin”. Human Rights Quarterly 5 (2); 203-6.

White, D 2001: “Lenin – The Practice and Theory of Revolution”. Palgrave, Basingstoke.

[1] Service 2004; 221

[2] Fitzpatrick 2008; 111

[3] Tumarkin 1981; 38

[4] Service 2000; 483

[5] Tumarkin 1981; 46

[6] Tumarkin 1983; 205

[7] Tumarkin 1981; 39

[8] Tumarkin 1981; 46

[9] Tumarkin 1981; 44

[10] Tumarkin 1983; 204

[11] Service 2004; 218

[12] Service 2004; 221

[13] Service 2004; 221

[14] Montefiore 2014; 66

[15] Service 2004; 357

[16] Service 2004; 309

[17] Lenin Q IN Dewey 1929; 145

[18] Khlevniuk2015; 39

[19] Panchenko 2005; 19

[20] Panchenko 2005; 20

[21] Panchenko 2005; 19

[22] Panchenko 2005; 21

[23] Panchencko 2005; 22

[24] Panchenko 2005; 21

[25] Panchenko 2005; 24

[26] Tumarkin 1981; 37

[27] White 2001; 185

[28] Service 2000; 9

[29] Tumarkin 1983; 204

[30] Figes 1996; 628

[31] Figes 1996; 627

[32] Figes 1996; 628

[33] Tumarkin 1983; 204

[34] Tumarkin 1983; 205

[35] Figes 1996; 629

[36] Service 2000; 393

[37] Lenin 1922; 3

[38] Figes 1996; 797

[39] Service 2000; 476

[40] Tucker 1979; 347

[41] Tumarkin 1981; 36

[42] Tumarkin 1983; 204

[43] Tumarkin 1983; 205

[44] Tumarkin 1981; 37

[45] Service 2004: 357

[46] Khlevniuk 2015; 137

King Canute: The Medieval King who Ruled Many European Lands

King Cnut (Canute) was a monarch who ruled over one of the most expansive empires in early medieval Europe. A Danish prince who seized the throne of England in the early 11th century, Cnut eventually ruled over England, Denmark, Norway, and parts of what is now Sweden. His story is of military ambition, political savvy, religious devotion, and enduring folklore. Cnut's reign remains one of the most remarkable examples of Viking integration into Christian European society.

Terry Bailey explains.

Cnut in a 13th century depiction, from the Genealogical Chronicle of the English Kings. Available here.

The Rise of a Conqueror

Cnut was born Circa 990 - 1035 CE, the son of Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark, and a Polish noblewoman, Świętosawa, the daughter of Mieszko I of Poland. He likely received a warrior's training, and his early years were steeped in the traditions of Norse seafaring and warfare. When Sweyn invaded England in 1013 CE, young Cnut accompanied him. Sweyn was briefly proclaimed king of England, but his death in 1014 CE left the country in turmoil.

After Sweyn's death, the English reinstated Æthelred the Unready. Cnut returned to Denmark but came back to England with a vengeance in 1015 CE, initiating a brutal campaign to reclaim what his father had started. Following a decisive victory at the Battle of Assandun in 1016 CE, Cnut forced King Edmund Ironside into a treaty that divided England between them. Edmund died shortly afterward, and Cnut became the undisputed king.

Strategic brilliance and political acumen

One of Cnut's greatest strengths was his ability to adapt. Unlike many Viking leaders who imposed foreign rule through sheer force, Cnut sought legitimacy through assimilation and diplomacy. He converted to Christianity (possibly earlier in life), married Emma of Normandy, the widow of King Æthelred, and retained many Anglo-Saxon nobles in his court, fostering a sense of continuity rather than conquest.

Cnut ruled England wisely, stabilizing the realm after decades of Viking incursions. He maintained a standing army and navy funded by the heregeld tax, which acted as a deterrent to future attacks. He supported the Church generously, restoring lands and privileges lost during earlier Viking raids. His piety and patronage earned him praise from contemporary chroniclers, such as those writing the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

He also skillfully managed his North Sea Empire, ruling Denmark after his brother's death in 1018 CE, and conquering Norway in 1028 CE. He installed loyal earls to govern and maintained a delicate balance of power between his diverse realms. Cnut became a king who was not just feared, but respected.

Fragmented Empire and legacy

Despite his skillful reign, Cnut's empire was fragile. It was held together by personal loyalty and military power rather than a cohesive administrative structure. After he died in 1035 CE, his sons, Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut, proved incapable of maintaining the realm. The empire quickly fractured, with Norway and Denmark breaking away, and England eventually falling to Edward the Confessor in 1042 CE.

Another weakness was his ruthless consolidation of power. The early years of his rule in England were marked by purges and executions. He eliminated rivals like Eadric Streona, the opportunistic ealdorman who had switched sides multiple times during the conflict with Edmund Ironside. Cnut's rule, while effective, was not without bloodshed.

Battles and campaigns

Battle of Assandun (1016 CE): The most crucial battle of Cnut's conquest of England. Fought against Edmund Ironside, this victory paved the way for Cnut's kingship.

Campaign against Norway (1028 CE): Cnut sailed with a powerful fleet to unseat King Olaf II of Norway. With the support of Norwegian nobles and little bloodshed, Cnut gained control of the country.

Suppression of Rebellions (1020s–30s CE): Cnut had to quell various uprisings in England, including resistance from Northumbria and the Welsh frontier. His harsh response ensured temporary peace.

The Legend of King Cnut and the Tide

Perhaps the most enduring story about Cnut is the legend of the tide. According to 12th-century chronicler Henry of Huntingdon, Cnut once commanded the tide to halt its advance to demonstrate the limits of royal power. When the sea ignored his command, he hung his crown on a crucifix, declaring that only God has supreme authority.

This tale is often misinterpreted as Cnut believing he could stop the sea; the tale, in fact, is a story of humility, illustrating the king's piety and awareness of divine sovereignty. While the historicity is doubtful, the moral of the story continues to resonate.

Archaeological evidence

Material evidence of Cnut's reign is sparse but significant:

Coins: Numerous silver pennies bearing Cnut's image have been found across England, Denmark, and Scandinavia. The coins depict him with a cross and scepter, highlighting his role as a Christian monarch. The consistency in minting standards reflects strong centralized control.

Burial Sites and Relics: Cnut was buried in the Old Minster at Winchester. However, during the English Civil War, his remains were disturbed and placed in a mortuary chest in Winchester Cathedral. DNA and bone analysis in recent years have sought to identify his remains among the disturbed bones, but conclusive identification remains elusive.

Structures and Foundations: Cnut's contributions to church building have left traces. He endowed monasteries and rebuilt religious structures damaged during previous Viking raids. Archaeological excavations at places like Winchester and Ely have uncovered foundations dating from his reign.

A King between Worlds

Cnut's life straddled two worlds: the pagan Viking past and the Christian European future. He was both a warrior and a lawgiver, a conqueror and a consolidator. His ability to bridge cultural divides made him a singular figure in early medieval history.

Though his empire did not last beyond his sons, Cnut left a profound legacy. He brought a period of peace and prosperity to England and helped shape the political landscape of northern Europe. His story, enriched by both historical records and legend, continues to fascinate scholars and storytellers alike.

Cnut remains one of the most complex and capable monarchs of the early medieval world. He was a Viking by birth, a Christian by choice, and a king by force and finesse. His reign marked a turning point in the integration of Norse and English cultures and assisted in laying the groundwork for the later unification of the English kingdom. Whether commanding armies or symbolically confronting the tide, Cnut's legacy is one of both ambition and wisdom.

His legacy is one that transcends the confines of conventional kingship. He was not merely a conqueror who seized thrones through military might, but a ruler who understood the necessity of legitimacy, diplomacy, and cultural assimilation.

In an age defined by upheaval, he imposed order. In a realm torn by dynastic conflict and Viking aggression, he brought stability. His reign, though forged in blood and hardened by ruthless pragmatism, was also defined by an enduring sense of purpose, a vision of a unified Christian North Sea empire governed through strength, justice, and reverence for divine authority.

Cnut's significance lies in his ability to govern not just through conquest, but through accommodation. His reign did not erase Anglo-Saxon traditions but incorporated them, preserving continuity in governance, law, and faith. His generous patronage of the Church, his marriage alliance with the Normans, and his use of native English advisors showed a political sophistication that was rare among Viking leaders. He was a foreign king who became, in the eyes of many of his English subjects, a legitimate and even praiseworthy ruler.

However, the fleeting nature of his empire underscores the fragility of early medieval statecraft. Built upon personal authority rather than institutional frameworks, Cnut's dominion did not survive him. His sons lacked his charisma and strategic acumen, and his vast empire fragmented almost immediately after his death. This rapid dissolution highlights the challenges of governing a multinational, sea-spanning realm without the bureaucratic tools or ideological glue that later empires would rely upon. Cnut's greatness, therefore, stands in even sharper relief, an exception in a time of transience.

Still, what Cnut achieved in his lifetime was extraordinary. He forged a pan-North Sea empire at a time when no other ruler could command such a vast and culturally diverse territory. He fostered peace, enabled commerce, and maintained order across lands that had only recently known chaos and conquest. His coinage, administrative reforms, and religious endowments all bear testament to a ruler who saw kingship as more than brute domination; it was a sacred duty to preserve justice, stability, and faith.

Perhaps most telling is the tale of Cnut and the tide, which endures as a metaphor for the humility that should temper absolute power. Whether apocryphal or based on a real event, the story has outlived the battles and alliances of his reign, casting Cnut not merely as a warrior king but as a philosopher-monarch, aware of the limits of human authority in the face of nature and as he understood it, divine will. In this legend, as in history, Cnut is remembered not just for the empire he forged but for the wisdom he showed in understanding its impermanence.

Ultimately, Cnut occupies a unique place in European history. He was a transitional figure, bridging pagan past and Christian future, Norse raider and English sovereign, conqueror and statesman. His reign foreshadowed the emergence of a more unified England and prefigured the Norman Conquest in tone and structure.

In life and legend, Cnut exemplified a rare synthesis of strength and subtlety, ambition and restraint. His empire may have crumbled after his death, but the impact of his rule echoes still, in coins, chronicles, cathedrals, and the enduring image of a king who knew he could not command the sea.

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Notes:

Heregeld tax

The heregeld was a tax levied in Anglo-Saxon England during the early 11th century, primarily instituted under King Æthelred the Unready around 1012 CE. The term heregeld comes from Old English, meaning "army payment," and its primary purpose was to finance payments to Danish mercenaries hired to defend England against Viking raids.

These payments were part of a broader strategy to buy temporary peace and military support, especially in response to the increasing threat from Norse invaders who had grown more aggressive and better organized during this period.

Originally, Æthelred had attempted to deal with Viking incursions by paying Danegeld, essentially a ransom to persuade Viking armies to leave. However, as these payments failed to ensure long-term peace, the English crown shifted toward employing Danish warriors themselves.

To fund the maintenance of this standing army and its fleets, the heregeld tax was imposed on the population. It was assessed annually and paid in silver, with contributions expected from landowners and freemen, reflecting the growing administrative capabilities of the Anglo-Saxon monarchy.

After the Danish conquest of England in 1016 CE by King Cnut (Canute), the heregeld system was retained and expanded, as indicated in the primary text. Cnut used the tax to maintain a permanent force of elite housecarls (professional warriors), who acted as his bodyguard and enforcers of royal power. The tax continued into the reigns of his successors but was eventually abolished by Edward the Confessor in 1051 CE, likely due to the financial burden it imposed and changing political needs.

The heregeld represents an important development in the evolution of English governance, highlighting the increasing militarization of taxation and the use of fiscal policy to support standing forces. It also illustrates how the pressures of Viking invasions forced English rulers to adapt administratively and militarily in ways that would have long-lasting effects on medieval English statecraft.

When A Historical Collision Becomes A Tragedy

The recent collision of the Mexican Training Ship Cuauhtemoc into the Brooklyn Bridge was a tragedy – but it was also a historical collision. Michael Leibrandt explains.

A depiction of the bridge on opening in 1883: Bird's-Eye View of the Great New York and Brooklyn Bridge and Grand Display of Fire Works on Opening Night

If you’ve been blessed with the chance to see the last visually-stunning scene in Martin Scorsese’s cinematic marvelGangs of New York from 2002 — which was a gorgeous time-lapse walk through the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge and the evolution around it through the centuries — then you were no doubt immersed in the depiction of the development of New York but also the changing landscape of Green-Wood Cemetery overlooking the East River. 

Nearly one hundred and twenty people perished during the Draft Riots of 1863. The country was in the midst of the American Civil War — and the Union needed troops. The Army of Northern Virginia had been beaten at Gettysburg — and General George Meade was under scrutiny for not pursing Lee’s Army. General Ulysses S. Grant who would take command of the Union Army in 1864 — however — had other ideas. Grant was committed to win the war as quickly as possible.

No army under a Confederate banner would never again invade of the north. Their attempt at a decisive victory on northern soil to entice European countries like France and Britain to join the aid of the south had failed. The Union Army would utilize conscription to replenish their ranks and not everyone was eager to enlist.

A few weeks ago, not long after 8:00 P.M., the Mexican Training Ship Cuauhtemoc lost power on the East River and slammed into the Brooklyn Bridge killing two people and injuring nineteen. Masts were broken on the two-hundred seventy-seven person vessel but it was successfully determined that the Bridge did not sustain any damage. 

Although the Brooklyn Bridge was designed by John A. Roebling — his daughter-in-law (Emily Warren Roebling) was essential in keeping it on track for completion when her husband Washington Roebling became ill. It would be more thanten years until the Brooklyn Bridge was finally completed and opened. The 43-year old Mexican Navy Training Vessel ARM Cuauhtémoc dates back to 1982.

Back at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn — which has roots going all the way back to 1838 — when it began life as a final resting place for overcrowded churchyards. It’s nearly 480 acres are home to more than 550,000 graves — including some of the most prominent 19th century families of New York which includes the Roosevelt’s and also famous people like Leonard Bernstein. The cemetery holds both Confederate and Union casualties, as well as Revolutionary Warsoldiers. It’s Gothic Revival Gates designed by Richard Upjohn — provide the warmth of a welcome in the summer months to this day.

For both the United States and Mexico — the collision a few weeks ago wasn’t just a collision. It was a collision of history for both nations.

Michael Thomas Leibrandt lives and works in Abington Township, PA.

Jesters Throughout History: Humor, Power, and the Politics of Performance

If we look back to the era of kings and queens, there is a common figure lurking in the courtrooms. You’ll find them in taverns, traveling from town to town, or even as far back as Ancient Egypt. These motley characters go by many names, a buffoon, a fool, a jongleur, and most commonly, a jester. 

The jester has a long history, entwined with humor, power and politics. There was always a lot more to these colorful characters than met the eye. These were masters of mischief and manipulation. Here, Daryl Refuerzo dive deeper into the colorful world of the jester throughout history.

Laughing Fool, circa 1500. Available here.

Jesters Date Back to Ancient Times 

While the Ancient Egyptians did not have jesters in the same sense as the medieval courts, they had their own version of a jester. 

Dating back to the 5th dynasty of Egypt, many pharaohs had an interest in people from distant lands, especially those who differed in appearance. Some pharaohs employed pygmies from the south and kept them as entertainment. These Natural Fools were more of a means of entertainment at the expense of their appearance, and they are different from the Licensed Fools that we see in royal courts.

Fools are Universal 

We see examples of jesters around the world, including both Natural Fools and Licensed Fools. Humor and wit as means of entertainment are a universal human experience that transcends any one place or time. 

In Poland, we have an example of one of the most famous court jesters, Stańczyk. He served three different Polish kings during his time as a jester, Alexander, Sigismund I the Old, and Sigismund II Augustus. The famous painting of Stańczyk by Jan Matejko is often one of the first images you see when you explore jesters, it’s memorable for his red jester ensemble, equipped with cap ‘n bells. Stańczyk was regarded by many poets and historians as a wise man who would weed out hypocrisy in favor of the truth. 

Another famous example of a court jester is Will Sommers, a jester during Tudor times. Sommers dazzled with his wit and was introduced to King Henry VIII sometime around 1525. He would go on to serve all three of the king’s children during his time as a jester. Like Stańczyk, Sommers held the same weight to his word, holding truth closely. It was said that Sommers and King Henry had a friendship that survived even the sharp-tongued moments that come with being a jester. 

However, not all jesters were men. Mathurine la Folle is one of the few female jesters we see in history, and she serviced the French court during King Henry III, King Henry IV, and King Louis XIII. Unlike other jesters, Mathurine wore an Amazon warrior costume that was equipped with a wooden sword. She was known for her sharp wit, but also for her assistance in catching the would-be assassin who tried to kill King Henry IV. 

These jesters, like the many others of their time, had a special place at the reigning monarch’s ear, they were able to tell them truths and even share advice when others could not. It was the court jester who was most skilled at delivering bad news to even the most hot-headed kings. Even the most brutal blow was easier to swallow when wrapped in rhymes or a well-timed joke.

Who Killed the Court Jester? 

While fools and jesters could be found in most corners of the world for centuries, their motley-colored reign did not last. During the Enlightenment period, as powdered wigs grew taller and powdered egos grew puffier, the idea of keeping a professional fool around became outdated. 

While political satire did not disappear entirely, the motley costumes of the jesters held no place in royal courts, instead they were replaced by politicians and philosophers. Despite this, the jester did not die out completely. Rather, the jester saw an evolution. Shifting from their typical court jester roles and merging into what we know today.

Modern Fools 

Today, there are many modern fools and jesters who carry on the torch of their witty forebears. If you’ve ever watched a late-night talk show, you can see the shadows of a court jester. A figure who addresses world events with a smile and a well-timed joke, all they are missing is the cap ’n bells or curled-toe shoes. 

We also see evidence of jesters in modern entertainers, in clowns, jugglers, acrobats, magicians, and even stand-up comedians. When you pass a busker or trickster performing on the street, you’re witnessing the evolution of one of the most common human traits. The ability to share in laughter.

Long May the Jester Reign 

While the motley costumes and jingling bells of the jester faded into history, they leave behind a legacy that has stretched through the centuries. From Ancient Egypt to medieval courts or the modern fools we know now, the jester’s reign never ended. Whether whispering wisdom to pharaohs, mocking kings with rhyme, or roasting presidents on late-night TV, the jester remains a timeless figure.

We should all take note of the jester’s lasting impressions. After all honey catches more flies than vinegar, and wit is always a sharper sword than wrath.

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King Alfred the Great: Warrior, Scholar, and Father of the English Nation

King of the West Saxons, 871 to 886 CE and King of the Anglo-Saxons from 886 CE until he died in 899 CE.

Few rulers in English history have been so richly remembered and widely revered as King Alfred the Great, the 9th-century monarch of Wessex. Crowned during a time of dire crisis, Alfred fought not only to repel Viking invasions but also to nurture a cultural and intellectual revival that laid the foundations for what would become England. He is the only English monarch to be honored with the epithet "the Great," a title earned not through conquest alone, but through visionary leadership, legal reform, and an enduring legacy of learning.

Terry Bailey explains.

King Arthur by Charles Ernest Butler (1903).

A Kingdom Under Siege

When Alfred ascended the throne in 871 CE, following the death of his brother King Æthelred, the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were under relentless assault from the Danish Vikings. The once-great Heptarchy of Anglo-Saxon England had crumbled, with kingdoms like Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia falling to the Scandinavian onslaught. Wessex stood alone as the last major kingdom resisting Viking domination.

Alfred's early reign was marked by intense military struggle. In 878 CE, at the lowest point of his fortunes, Alfred was forced to retreat to the marshes of Athelney in Somerset after a surprise Viking attack. From these swampy redoubts, he regrouped his forces and launched a counterattack, defeating the Danes at the Battle of Edington. This decisive victory led to the Treaty of Wedmore, by which Guthrum was baptized and agreed to retreat to East Anglia, marking the boundary between Wessex and the Danelaw, Viking-controlled territory in the east.

Alfred's military success was not limited to battlefield heroics. He initiated groundbreaking reforms.

Burh System: Alfred reorganized the kingdom's defense by constructing a network of fortified towns (burhs), strategically placed to counter Viking mobility. These burhs later formed the basis for many English towns and cities, including Oxford and Winchester.

Naval Innovation: Recognizing the Viking threat from the sea, Alfred established the first English navy, commissioning longships that were larger and swifter than those of the Danes. While not always successful, this early naval force laid the foundation for future maritime strength.

Military Reforms: He reorganized the fyrd (militia), instituting a rotation system so that part of the army could always be on duty while others tended to their farms, ensuring a sustainable, year-round defense.

Law, learning, and legacy

While King Alfred the Great is often remembered for his military successes, his true legacy lies in his deep devotion to justice and learning, which helped shape the cultural and legal foundations of early England.

One of Alfred's most enduring contributions was his reform of the legal system. In the Doom Book, he consolidated various Anglo-Saxon laws with Christian ethics and elements of Mosaic law, not to create something entirely new, but to refine and unify. His goal was to ensure a more consistent and fair legal system across the kingdom of Wessex, guided by a strong moral compass rooted in faith and tradition.

Equally significant was Alfred's passion for education. Distressed by the widespread decline in literacy, he led a cultural revival by inviting learned men from across Mercia and Europe to his court. He was personally involved in the translation of important Latin texts into Old English, including Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy and Pope Gregory's Pastoral Care, so that knowledge would no longer be the privilege of the clergy alone but accessible to all free men capable of learning.

Alfred also helped lay the foundations of English historical writing. Under his guidance, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was begun, an ambitious and unprecedented record of England's history that would continue to be updated for centuries. It was a bold effort to preserve the past and shape a collective national identity, long before the concept of England as a unified state had fully formed.

Strengths in detail

He is widely celebrated for his exceptional leadership and visionary reforms during great turmoil in Anglo-Saxon England. One of his most prominent strengths was his military acumen. Facing relentless Viking invasions, Alfred displayed remarkable strategic foresight. After suffering early defeats, as outlined, he reorganized the military system, establishing a network of fortified towns known as burhs and organized a standing army and a navy capable of repelling future attacks. These reforms not only defended his kingdom but also laid the groundwork for the eventual unification of England.

As discussed, Alfred's key strengths were his commitment to learning and education. Believing that wisdom and learning were essential for good governance, he promoted literacy and scholarship in a period when intellectual decline was widespread. He initiated the translation of key Latin texts into Old English and personally contributed to some translations. This cultural revival helped preserve classical knowledge and elevated the intellectual standards of his court and clergy.

Alfred's legal and administrative reforms also showcased his strengths as a ruler. He compiled a code of laws known as the Doom Book, blending Mosaic law, Christian ethics, and existing Anglo-Saxon customs. His laws emphasized justice, fairness, and the protection of the weak, reflecting a deep sense of moral duty. Moreover, Alfred's diplomatic skills were evident in his alliances with neighboring kingdoms and his fostering of unity among the Anglo-Saxons in opposition to the Danish threat. It was through resilience, intellect, reforms and actions that Alfred earned his epithet "the Great".

Weaknesses in detail

Although celebrated for his defense of Anglo-Saxon England against Viking invasions and his contributions to learning and law, the Great King was not without weaknesses, both personal and political. One of his most pressing challenges was his initial military indecisiveness. In the early stages of his reign, Alfred struggled to organize a cohesive and timely response to the Viking incursions.

The infamous retreat to the marshes of Athelney in 878 CE, though ultimately a turning point, was precipitated by Alfred's inability to prevent a surprise Danish advance. His kingdom was nearly overrun, and his survival was briefly reduced to guerrilla tactics and concealment.

A further shortcoming was his difficulty in unifying all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms under a single political structure. While he was successful in asserting dominance over Wessex and parts of Mercia, his influence over the Danelaw regions remained fragile and contested. His reliance on negotiated truces with Viking leaders like Guthrum, though pragmatic, often came at the cost of conceding territory or accepting tenuous peace arrangements that required constant vigilance and resources to maintain.

On a personal level, Alfred was known to suffer from chronic illness, which may have limited his ability to command on the battlefield and reduced his energy and stamina in governance. While some sources suggest he had a painful intestinal condition, possibly Crohn's disease or hemorrhoids, this ailment likely imposed constraints on his direct leadership during military campaigns. Additionally, his religious piety and emphasis on monastic reform, while admirable, sometimes alienated more martial or secular factions within his court who may have preferred a more aggressive stance against Norse incursions.

Folklore and legend

Alfred's fame also birthed enduring folklore, the most famous being the story of the burnt cakes. While hiding in the marshes of Athelney, Alfred is said to have taken refuge in a peasant woman's home. She, unaware of his identity, tasked him with watching her cakes on the fire. Distracted by thoughts of battle, Alfred allowed them to burn, and she scolded him for his carelessness, a tale of humility and resilience.

Other legends emphasize his wisdom in disguise. Like Harun al-Rashid of Baghdad or Odysseus, Alfred supposedly roamed his kingdom in humble clothing, seeking truth and learning about his people. It is an interesting point that similar tales often transcend through the ages when elevating greatness in individuals.

Archaeological evidence

Modern archaeology continues to shed light on the reign of King Alfred the Great, offering tangible evidence to complement the historical record. Excavations at fortified sites such as Wareham and Wallingford have revealed impressive earthworks, large, rectangular defensive enclosures, that align with descriptions in the Burghal Hidage, a military survey from Alfred's time listing strategic fortified settlements, or burhs. These findings underscore Alfred's ambitious efforts to defend his kingdom against Viking incursions by establishing a network of fortresses.

On the Isle of Athelney in Somerset, archaeological work has uncovered the foundations of a monastic complex believed to be the abbey Alfred founded in gratitude after emerging from hiding there in 878 CE. Following his eventual victory over the Vikings, Alfred commemorated his refuge with a religious institution whose legacy is marked today by a memorial monument on the site.

Meanwhile, the quest to locate Alfred's remains has focused on Hyde Abbey in Winchester, where he was believed to have been reinterred. In 2013, archaeologists examined a set of human bones found at the site. Though testing was hampered by centuries of disturbance and yielded inconclusive results, the investigation reignited public interest in the fate of England's only monarch officially titled "the Great."

Alfred's reign is also reflected in his coinage. Notably, the "London Monogram" series, minted after 886 CE, signifies his consolidation of control over London and his political alignment with the rulers of Mercia, such as Æthelred. These coins are not just currency but symbols of authority, cooperation, and the emerging unity of early England.

The making of England

Alfred's real genius lay in laying the groundwork for English unification. Though he never ruled all of England, his reforms and military efforts preserved Anglo-Saxon culture during a time when it could easily have been extinguished. His son Edward the Elder and grandson Æthelstan would later build on Alfred's vision, extending control over the Danelaw and shaping a more united English kingdom.

Alfred the Great was more than a warrior-king. He was a scholar-ruler, a reformer, a builder, and the spiritual founder of the English nation. Through battlefield resilience, legal reform, and cultural revival, he ensured that the Anglo-Saxon identity survived and evolved into a unified England. His title "the Great" is not merely honorific; it reflects a rare blend of might and mind, courage and culture.

In conclusion, King Alfred the Great stands as a towering figure in early English history, not simply because he resisted conquest, but because he envisioned a civilization worth defending. In an age defined by violent upheaval and cultural disintegration, Alfred did more than safeguard Wessex, he laid the intellectual, legal, and political foundations for a nation that did not yet exist. His military triumphs against the Vikings, especially the pivotal victory at Edington, prevented the complete collapse of Anglo-Saxon rule. Yet Alfred's legacy transcends the battlefield. By reforming the militia, establishing fortified towns, and founding a navy, he ensured that defense would no longer be reactionary but strategic and sustainable.

More significantly, Alfred recognized that the soul of a nation lies not only in swords and shields, but in schools, scriptures, and the rule of law. His translation of classical and Christian texts, his involvement in education, and his codification of laws all point to a ruler deeply committed to justice, wisdom, and moral integrity. He was a rare king who valued books as much as blades, who sought to govern not through brute force but through enlightened order and his duty.

Even in his weaknesses, his chronic illness, conservative outlook, and limited territorial control, we see a man grappling with the limitations of his time and body, yet still forging a legacy that others would build upon. Alfred did not live to see a fully unified England, but without him, there may never have been one. His son Edward the Elder and grandson Æthelstan would extend his vision, but the blueprint, the ideological, military, and cultural architecture, was Alfred's alone.

The legends that surround him, from burnt cakes to cloaked wanderings among the common folk, only deepen the perception of a monarch who was not aloof but profoundly human, humble, wise, and tirelessly devoted to his people. Archaeological discoveries continue to confirm the historical reality of his reign, reinforcing the truth that Alfred was not merely a figure of myth, but a pragmatic and perceptive statesman.

In the end, Alfred the Great was not just a savior of Wessex, but the architect of English identity. His synthesis of warrior virtue, scholarly pursuit, legal clarity, and Christian kingship created a model of rulership that endured long after his death. That he is the only English king ever granted the epithet "the Great" is a testament to his unique combination of vision, intellect, and resolve. In preserving what was best of the Anglo-Saxon world and projecting it into a future that he could only partially see, Alfred earned his place not only in the chronicles of England, but in the enduring story of Western civilization.

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Extensive notes:

The Doom Book

The Doom Book, also known as Dom-boc, was a legal code compiled by King Alfred the Great of Wessex in the late 9th century. It was a significant legal document in early English history, combining previous Anglo-Saxon law codes with Christian principles. Alfred drew from older legal traditions such as those of Æthelberht of Kent, Ine of Wessex, and Offa of Mercia, and prefaced his code with passages from the Book of Exodus, showing a conscious fusion of Mosaic law and Germanic custom.

The Doom Book was designed not only to provide justice but to reflect moral guidance based on Christian doctrine, offering insight into the cultural and religious landscape of early medieval England.

In contrast, the Doomsday Book (more accurately spelled Domesday Book) is a later piece of work and not to be confused with the Doom book. The Doomsday Book was a monumental land survey ordered by William the Conqueror in 1085–1086 CE, nearly two centuries after Alfred's reign.

Unlike the Doom Book, which was a set of laws, the Doomsday Book was an administrative record intended to assess land ownership, resources, and taxation potential throughout England. The name "Domesday" evokes the finality and thoroughness of the Last Judgment, underscoring the idea that its findings were unchallengeable. It covered much of England and parts of Wales, detailing landholders, their holdings, the value of the land, and the obligations attached to it.

The key difference between the two lies in their purpose and function: the Doom Book was a legal code intended to guide judgment and justice in courts, while the Doomsday Book was a financial and administrative survey meant to consolidate control over William's new kingdom and establish a basis for taxation. Though both played crucial roles in shaping medieval English governance, they reflect different priorities: moral-legal order versus economic-political control.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles are a collection of annals written in Old English that document the history of England from the 5th century through the 12th century. They were commissioned by King Alfred the Great in the late 9th century to preserve the history and culture of the Anglo-Saxon people in the face of Viking invasions and other external threats. The chronicles were initially compiled in the Kingdom of Wessex, but over time, different versions were created in various regions of England, each adding local details to the larger historical narrative.

The text is unique in that it combines both secular and religious history, detailing the reigns of kings, battles, invasions, and major events, as well as the Christianization of England and the role of the church in shaping the kingdom. The Chronicles are invaluable as a primary source for historians, providing insight into the early medieval period, including the relationship between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings, the establishment of the English monarchy, and the transformation of England from a pagan society to a Christian one.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles survive in multiple manuscripts, with some of the most notable versions found in the British Library and the Bodleian Library. They differ in their regional focus and detail, but together, they provide a comprehensive look at the history of early medieval England. The chronicles are particularly significant for their role in the development of historical writing in England, influencing later works such as the Domesday Book and the writings of later historians.

Though the original text was written in Old English, parts of the chronicles were later translated into Latin and became widely known across the Christian world. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles remain an essential resource for understanding the origins of the English nation and its early historical development.

Burghal Hidage

The Burghal Hidage is a remarkable document from early medieval England that provides a rare glimpse into the defensive infrastructure of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex during the late 9th or early 10th century. It lists a series of fortified settlements, known as burhs, along with the number of hides of land assigned to each. A hide was a unit of land measurement, roughly enough to support a household. In this context, it likely served as a basis for calculating the manpower and resources needed to defend the fortifications.

Traditionally dated to the reign of King Alfred the Great, the Burghal Hidage is closely associated with Alfred's wide-ranging military reforms in response to the Viking threat. Faced with repeated Norse invasions, Alfred sought to create a network of strategically placed burhs to defend the kingdom and provide safe havens for the population. Each burh was supplied and maintained by the surrounding land, with one man required to defend every 4 poles (about 5.5 meters) of wall based on the number of hides allocated. This ensured that each fortress had sufficient defenders, and it allowed for rapid military mobilization.

Two versions of the Burghal Hid-age survive:

The main list, which includes 33 burhs, and the shorter list, which omits a few entries. Many of the burhs listed evolved into key English towns, including Winchester, Oxford, and Wallingford.

The document is not only significant for military history but also for urban development and administrative organization. It reflects a level of central planning and logistical capability that was advanced for its time and laid the foundation for England's later unified defense system under the Anglo-Saxon and later Norman kings.

London Monogram

During Alfred the Great's reign, he undertook a comprehensive reform of the West Saxon coinage, both to stabilize the economy and to assert royal authority over the newly unified territories. Central to this reform was the establishment of a more standardized system of mints, among which London played a preeminent role.

Coins struck at London bore a distinctive monogram on the reverse side, typically rendered as a compact, interlaced arrangement of the letters L O N D, and this "London Monogram" quickly became synonymous with both the city's importance and the high quality of its silver currency.

The London Monogram served several key purposes. First, it acted as a mint-mark, guaranteeing to merchants and the populace that the coin met the king's exacting standards for weight (approximately 1.3 grams of high-purity silver) and fineness. Second, its geometric and easily recognizable design functioned as a deterrent to clipping and other forms of debasement: any attempt to shave off silver could be readily spotted when the monogram's crisp angles and interwoven strokes were compromised. Finally, by marking coins with the name and emblem of London, the empire's burgeoning commercial hub, Alfred reinforced the city's status as the fiscal heart of his kingdom and as a focal point for trade with the Continent and beyond.

Beyond its practical applications, the London Monogram on Alfred's pennies carried symbolic weight. It underscored the close relationship between king and city: London supplied the skilled moneyers and the resources necessary for minting, while Alfred's authority ensured that the coinage circulated widely and fostered economic cohesion across Wessex and the recently acquired Mercian territories. Even after Alfred's death, successors continued to use monograms and mint-marks echoing his example, cementing the legacy of the London Monogram as an enduring icon of early medieval English sovereignty and monetary unity.

The concept of a London, or Royal monogram continues today, for example Royal cyphers, such as "ER" for Elizabeth Regina or "CR" for Charles Rex, appear throughout the city on post boxes, government buildings, and official documents, serving as a form of royal monogram that reinforces London's role as the heart of the British monarchy and trade. While the term "London Monogram" itself may not denote a specific, universally adopted image, it encompasses a rich tapestry of design traditions that echo the city's culture, influence, and visual legacy from centuries past to present.

How a Fake British Military Leader Fooled the Germans During World War 2

Deception has always been a part of military tactics, from the ancient Trojan Horse to the Gulf War, when Saddam Hussein positioned his troops along the Iraq-Kuwait border, claiming they were on a training mission as a cover-up for his true intentions of invading Kuwait. It was no different during the Second World War, when commanders devised unusual deception strategies. One of these involved an actor impersonating Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery.

Róza Gombos explains.

Montgomery during World War II.

In 1942, the Allies began to turn the tide of the war — the Germans had been stopped in North Africa, the Japanese had been pushed back in the Pacific theatre, and the German 6th Army had been encircled at Stalingrad. Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin decided on an Allied landing in Normandy, codenamed Operation Overlord. Executing the operation required massive preparation, lasting several months. One of the most important objectives was to prevent the Germans from learning the time and location of the invasion. To achieve this, commanders devised a number of deception operations to mislead the enemy.

Bernard Montgomery played a key role in the operation. He was the Ground Forces Commander-in-Chief and also contributed to refining Lieutenant General Morgan’s invasion plan. Since Montgomery was a central figure in the operation, the time and location of the Allied landing could potentially be linked to his whereabouts. The deception plan, known as Operation Copperhead, aimed to mislead the Germans about where and when the invasion would occur. If they spotted Montgomery somewhere else, it could lead them to believe the invasion was imminent in a different location, prompting them to redeploy their forces and divert divisions away from Normandy.

All the intelligence services needed was a double for Bernard Montgomery…

The double

After a persistent search for the ideal double, Lieutenant Colonel John Jervis-Reid from the deception planning department of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force saw a photo in the News Chronicle of someone who looked remarkably like Montgomery. With that, they had found the perfect candidate for the operation.[1]

The photo was of actor Meyrick Edward Clifton James. He had fought in the First World War at the Battle of the Somme. After the war, he took up acting. Later, during the Second World War, he was commissioned into the Royal Army Pay Corps.

Many people noticed his striking resemblance to Montgomery and often joked about it. James wrote in his memoir that after Montgomery’s victories in North Africa, he was in Nottingham when he went on stage to make an announcement. The crowd mistook him for the general and greeted him with loud applause and cheering.[2]

In London, after a night performance of When Knights Were Bold, a News Chronicle photographer came into his dressing room. The photographer had been told that James looked like Montgomery, which piqued his interest. The actor borrowed a beret, and the photographer took pictures of him.[3]

The photo appeared in the News Chronicle with the caption ’You’re wrong – it’s Lieut. Clifton James’.

Worry?

While it seemed to be an innocent joke, James began to worry—what if the senior military staff saw the photo? He even had a nightmare in which he was deported and dropped by parachute into Berchtesgaden for impersonating the general.[4]

James’ unease soon proved justified. The higher military circles had indeed seen the photos—and they took serious notice of his resemblance.

In May 1944, the actor received a phone call from Colonel David Niven from the Army Kinematograph Section. The colonel offered him a role in an Army film they were supposedly making.

Niven instructed him to meet Colonel Lester at the Grand Hotel in Leicester and to bring some photographs of himself.[5] They had lunch, but the colonel did not mention anything about a film. As a result, James assumed he was not qualified and had not been selected for the role.[6]

The next day, he received a letter from Niven informing him that he was indeed suitable for the job and that he needed to travel to London. To James’ confusion, Colonel Lester later told him that they were not going to make any films after all.[7]

“You are very much like General Montgomery, or Monty, as he is commonly called,” said Colonel Lester. James froze—he thought it was a trap and that he was going to be arrested for unlawful impersonation.[8] But then Lester continued:

“You have been chosen to act as the double of General Montgomery before D-Day. I am in charge of this job. It is our business to trick the enemy.”[9]

The plan

The plan was for James to impersonate Montgomery in the Mediterranean, in order to make the Germans believe the Allies would launch the invasion there, while the real Montgomery remained in the United Kingdom. To prepare for this, MI5 arranged for James to spend several days with Montgomery’s staff so he could study his voice, gestures, and mannerisms.[10]

The operation had to be kept top secret. James could not tell anyone; he was advised to be constantly suspicious and to avoid drinking with strangers.[11]

When everything was ready, James was flown to Algiers, where he met General Maitland Wilson. In the capital of Algeria, he was cheered by thousands of troops and high-ranking officers. According to James, nobody doubted that he was Montgomery.[12]

He was seen publicly with General Wilson to create the illusion that Montgomery and Wilson were planning the invasion. Afterward, he was sent to Cairo to keep him out of the public eye while the Normandy landings were underway. Later, he returned to London without arousing any suspicion.

During the interrogation of captured German generals, they confirmed they had been aware of Montgomery’s supposed arrival in the Mediterranean. However, one of them admitted he was not sure whether it was the real Montgomery or just a feint.[13] The operation itself was successful, though it did not significantly influence the course of the Normandy landings.

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[1] https://marksimner.me.uk/i-was-montys-double-meyrick-edward-clifton-james/ Accessed: 18 May 2025)

[2] M. E. Clifton James: I was Monty’s Double (The Popular Book Club, 1957) p. 20.

[3] James, 1957, p. 20.

[4] James, 1957, p. 20.

[5] James, 1957, p. 22.

[6] James, 1957, p. 24.

[7] James, 1957, p. 26.

[8] James, 1957, p. 30.

[9] James, 1957, p. 30.

[10] James, 1957, p. 45.

[11] James, 1957, p. 50.

[12] James, 1957, p. 167.

[13] Graham Lord: The Authorized Biography of David Niven (St. Martin’s Press, 2004) p. 124.